Colony Collapse Disorder

The phenomena known as colony collapse disorder (CCD) have been documented for many years and it seems to have first been noticed during the mid nineteenth century. Over the past few decades, however, their occurrence has increased in unprecedented rates to such an extent that many governments, especially in Europe and North America, have started taking steps to ensure that the situation is remedied. The CCD is a condition where the entire population of bees in a hive die off as a result of varying factors, both known and unknown and this occurs with devastating effects to the ecological system (Hamzelou, 2007, 639). However, while the factors which cause this syndrome have been speculated upon for many years, there is yet to be a conclusive answer to the question of what is the cause of these disappearances. While this may be the case, ongoing research into the matter has come to show that there is a possible connection between the use of a diverse number of pesticides by farmers which may have a negative effect on bees because they cause their deaths. It is a fact that when the CCD takes place, scientists and bee farmers are never able to determine the cause of this disorder because of the fact that their occurrences tend to be so slow that they are barely noticed until it is too late. Because of this, it has become imperative that beehives in all the countries that are affected to be kept under constant observation so that the exact cause of the problem can be determined and in the process remedied.

While it is a fact that the exact cause of CCD is not known, among the biggest suspects that have come to public notice has been the use of pesticides, which are believed to be contributing factors to the problem. Scientists have, for quite some time, supposed that the use of pesticides and possibly some fungicides may have been of lethal effect on bees, not killing them immediately but instead weakening their development and behaviour (Watanabe, 2009, 1010). Among the pesticides which have been of most interest to scientists studying CCD occurrences are the insecticides known as neonicoticoids, which contain chemicals that may have a negative effect on bees. These chemicals tend to be used in seed treatment in the process, they tend to work their way up through the plant into the latter’s flowers where they end up occurring in the nectar. As a result of the bees consuming the nectar containing chemicals from neonicoticoids over a long period of time, these chemicals, while not instantly lethal, may have other adverse effects on the bee population consuming them. It has been found that almost all the corn in the United States that has been genetically engineered contains some form of neonicoticoids, since the latter are used in their treatment. In addition to this, it has been found that these types of insecticides tend to occur in the soil of the fields near where the genetically modified corn has been planted (Vaughan & Black, 2008, 80). It has, therefore, been speculated that these forms of insecticides may get consumed by bees indirectly through the plants which occur in such fields and this may, in fact, be a major cause of the CCD occurrence in bee populations.

Scientists researching CCD have speculated that the use of antibiotics and miticides may have an effect on the sudden disappearances of bee populations. Research concerning this idea has been conducted extensively and many beekeepers who have been affected by CCD that have been interviewed have stated that they indeed make use of antibiotics and miticides among their bee colonies. The results of these investigations by scientists have, however, not been conclusive because of the fact that it is not known what specific antibiotics or miticides that are used may be the cause of the problem (Watanabe, 2008, 384). The use of such chemicals has not been determined to be a definite cause of CCD because there tends to be a lack of uniformity concerning exactly what particular chemicals are used by beekeepers, hence doubts have been cast about whether only one or a combination of antibiotics and miticides are responsible for the occurrence of CCD in bee colonies. The fact that a majority of the chemicals contained in antibiotics and miticides have yet to be tested to determine whether they have any negative effect on bees and this has contributed to the lack of credibility concerning whether these two groups of chemicals are indeed responsible for the development of CCD (Lago, 2012, 1678). While this may be the case, the widespread use of these chemicals by beekeepers makes them have a huge potential of being the cause of CCD and it has not become necessary for scientists to take the initiative in determining whether the diverse number of antibiotics and miticides used may have an effect on the the development of this condition in bees.

Most of the focal point concerning the causes of CCD has been given to the potential environmental causes of these phenomena. One would suggest that the development of CCD has taken place because of the increased commercialisation of beekeeping which has prevented bees from breeding freely. This may have created a situation where the bees which have developed lack genetic diversity which causes them to become susceptible to diseases and other genetic conditions that are potentially harmful to the colony. As a result of the weakening of the genetic makeup of bees, the potential of their being wiped out in case of disease becomes extremely high. This leads to the decimation of the bee population which not only affects these creatures, but also the entire ecosystem that depends on them to help in the process of pollination. It can therefore be said that while there may be many suspects on the causes of CCD, only more research concerning this phenomena can reveal the exact causes. This research has to be conducted urgently because whole ecosystems, as well as farmers, depend on bees to ensure the successful production of food to feed the billions of people all over the world.

Organic and Ethical Products in the US and UK

The current generation of consumers in the United States and in the United Kingdom has come to have plenty of expectations concerning the products that they purchase and it has taken quite an effort by the various companies involved to ensure that these consumers are satisfied. Sales for organic and ethical products in the United States and the United Kingdom are rising, more so than sales for conventional products, and consumer demand for these products is increasing despite the global economic downturn. This is according to a survey conducted towards the end of 2009 which showed that approximately one quarter of the adult shoppers in these countries buy certified organic food or beverages and one third continue to pay more for organic foods. It has become the trend in these two countries for consumers to buy products that are perceived to fulfill environmentally friendly, natural, organic, local, or humane requirements and enhance the corporate responsibility profile of the companies that are involved in the supply of such products (Cho & Krasser, 2011). While some of the major retailers in the United States, such as Wal-Mart and Safeway are expanding their offerings of organic products, in the United Kingdom, on the other hand, the retailers seem to be reducing their offerings of similar products (Robins, 2012). Despite this being the case, among the offerings that are leading the way in retail stores are increased sales of organic breads and grain products and "ethical" drinks.

It was estimated that in the United States, the supermarket sales of environmentally friendly or ethical products would rise by as high as 8.7 percent by the end of 2009 to nearly thirty eight billion dollars, and increase from the previous year where sales of goods specifically labeled organic rose 17 percent to just over twenty six billion dollars. The increased sales of the so-called greener products, from energy-efficient light bulbs to organic produce, are more than likely, according to experts, to result in the increase of awareness of issues concerning the sustainability of the environment in the face of the global economic crisis and climate change (Freestone & McGoldrick, 2008). Despite the newfound awareness of the need for environmental sustainability, it has been found that with the economy foremost in consumers' minds, sensitive price concerns in the midst of the current recession is as one might expect having an effect on the market for ethical products. While this is the case, surveys that have been conducted indicate that more have an understanding of the environmental, social, and economic implications of their choices. The result is that quite a number of consumers will end up purchasing more expensive ethical products even in economically challenging times and this is because of the belief that it is worth it (Himes, 2007). The need to ensure that they adopt a lifestyle that is in accordance with sustaining the environment has ensured that consumers are ready to undertake any expense in order to attain ethical products. This new trend among consumers seems to have attained the attention of major retailers, not only in the United States and the United Kingdom but also all over the world, and these are slowly but surely shifting towards making offerings of these ethical products on their shelves.

While many companies in the United States and the United Kingdom have conducted surveys to find out how consumers end up buying ethical products, mostly online, this process has to be supplemented by these companies ensuring that there are open lines of communication available between them and consumers. This tends to be done to ensure that there is an understanding which helps in the determination of what the consumers want and this has the aim of creating a good and effective relationship between the retailers and the consumers of their products (Newman & Bartels, 2011). It has been found that the sales of ethical goods and services have increased despite the economic recession, growing to more than fifty billion pounds in the United Kingdom alone. Since the commencement of the economic recession some years back, the importance of ethical markets from Fairtrade products and green energy to free range and environmentally friendly food has grown from £35.5bn to £47.2bn, and in addition, the annual ethical consumer markets report have shown that sales in the sector have increased significantly since its inception in 1989 (Costache, 2012). It has been proven that the intervention by enlightened businesses, alongside regulatory intervention, is the forces driving the ethical sales growth. During the economic recession, it was found that some of the biggest Fairtrade conversions, whether it was chocolate or sugar, and business is beginning to act in response to the challenge of providing consumers with more sustainable products and services such as fish, palm oil and soya (Doherty & Tranchell, 2007). It can therefore be said that ethical consumers are still a vitally important agent of change, but alongside them, however, are the actions of progressive businesses which have become a significant contributor to sales growth in this sector.

The Fairtrade Foundation, which is based in the United Kingdom, is a non-profit organization that advocates for higher payments for crops produced by the world's poorest farmers. This organization, in 2012 stated that the retail sales of products traded under the Fairtrade banner in that year leapt to an estimated 1.57 billion pounds, and this was an increase of nineteen percent from the previous year. Fairtrade stated that this showed that consumers were not abandoning products for which they had to pay a premium despite the fact that they had tight household budgets in a tough economic climate (Hartlieb & Jones, 2009). It was found that Fairtrade's annual cocoa, sugar and banana sales have continued to receive significant growth in the past few years, and because of this, the organization has stated that its premiums, the extra that producers receive for business development, have also come to increase significantly (Smith, 2010). The certification and product labeling using the Fairtrade mark are the main tools used by the foundation to ensure that farmers receive a fair price, and this has often resulted in goods on shop shelves costing slightly more (McMurtry, 2009).

It has been stated that in order to design effective programs to satisfy the needs of ethical consumers, the retailers involved must have proper information concerning the specific product that they would like to sell. In addition, it has been found that the retailers should also conduct surveys to find out whether ethical consumers find their products satisfactory, and they are obliged to ensure that they get the best products in the market for their shelves (Ismail & Panni, 2008). An example of such course of action is to ensure that their products are made to be safe in every way and to achieve this, the retailer must be aware of the dangers that can be found in during the production and processing of their products. If those who make decisions within the retail stores are not aware of a particular problem in the product, it would be impossible for them to come up with reasonable solutions. The study draws as much as possible on impact assessment studies of existing schemes, but while this is the case, the availability of studies in relation to the various different labels and standards is sometimes limited. There are many methodological difficulties associated with in-depth impact assessment, and analytical assumptions may be required in the definition of study findings to derive overall expected development impacts as it is beyond the scope of this study to undertake independent impact assessments on each of the labeling schemes being analyzed.

Taking into Account Impacts of Climate Change in Evaluation of Urban Project Sustainability

Reduction of carbon emissions

When making evaluations concerning the sustainability of urban projects, it is essential to put the impacts of climate change into consideration because it is the only way to ensure long term planning. Through taking into account the impact of climate change, it is possible for successful and sustainable urban projects to be developed and put into practice (Polycarp, Patel, and Seong, 2013, p.19). Efforts should be made to ensure that the negative impacts of climate change do not affect urban centres and projects that are undertaken within them through the development of policies designed to minimise the impacts stated above. Therefore, for the sustainability of urban projects to be achieved, it should be a requirement that the use of those technologies that have low carbon emission levels be introduced within urban centres. These technologies have to include the use of renewable energy sources such as wind and solar energy, which release little or no emissions into the atmosphere. The administrations of urban centres should also set out to address issues related to potential shortages of water as a result of climate change because it is this resource is what ensures that life in cities remains constant. Governments should take seriously all serious proposals concerning the manner through which to make sure that urban centres are able to significantly reduce their contribution to climate change. These proposals have to include the complete removal of carbon emissions not only in all public places, but also in residential buildings and this should be done through cities’ setting standards that have to be followed by all residents.

Introduction of green energy

To reduce the amount of waste energy that is a contributory factor in the occurrence of heat waves, it is essential that urban planners include the use of green energy in their policies. Green energy can be used in public transport because this is often the main means of transport in most urban areas with a majority of their population using it. The use of this energy will make possible a serious reduction in waste energy produced within society and will ensure that urban populations make green transport the norm. Through correct policies, the diverse transport networks in almost all cities in the world can be thoroughly transformed to such an extent that there are zero emission rates as a result of using green energy (Smith, 2013). The implementation of green energy policies would ensure that only the most preferred modes of transport are those that emit very little or no carbon into the atmosphere, hence ensuring that individuals in urban areas take responsibility for their environment through fighting climate change. Urban governments could propose the use of hybrid and electric vehicles as well as hydrogen buses as means of transport to ensure that the climate around cities does not change as a result of the use of fossil fuels. Moreover, these governments should discourage the use of private means of transport within urban areas and instead encourage people in their jurisdiction to use public transport, and when not going for long distances, to use bicycles or just walk. These actions are meant to ensure that the large numbers of vehicles in urban areas that emit carbon are removed from use; hence a cleaner environment and less contribution to climate change.

Waste management

Among initiatives that have to be put at the forefront of urban planning and projects is the proper disposal of waste within these areas. Proper waste disposal ensures that pollution levels within urban areas are reduced significantly enough to improve the quality of life for their residents. Furthermore, decomposing waste tends to have an impact on the urban environment through not only ruining the quality of air within cities, but also through increasing the levels of heat that might lead to risks of heat waves that put urban populations at risk. Waste management can be done through the recycling of waste materials as well as a reduction in the amount of rubbish that has not been disposed as well as ensuring that there is efficient use of energy in the preservation of food so that it does not go bad (Davidson, 2011, p.13). One would that suggest that as soon as waste management policies are not only put into serious consideration but also actively implemented, it might bring about low carbon emissions but also ensure that there is efficient use of available resources in urban areas. The latter can be achieved through encouraging individuals in urban areas to only purchase food for their immediate needs rather than getting more at the risk of not using it at all, thus increasing the waste problem in their environment. Through proper waste management strategies, it is possible that people in urban areas as well as their governments will end up saving money which can be put into better use elsewhere.

Restoration of infrastructure and slum areas

Restoration projects in slums are also important in the development of a safe environment within urban areas because they ensure that a safer environment is provided for the people that live in these places. The demolition of old traditional buildings and building better ones in their place as well as restoring those that are strong enough to withstand natural disasters means that the urban environment is made safer against the effects of climate change (McKee, 2012). Such restoration projects would be of immense help for urban people because it would ensure that they live in a clean environment which can be sustained in that state. The places that are overcrowded and considered slums should be provided funding through their administrations that can to be used in their transformation into clean environments. Moreover, there should be a focus in the improvement of the available public spaces, in addition to creating new ones, and funding must be provided in ensuring that this is made possible. This can be done to make sure that the urban environment is also filled with nature as well as areas to which populations can be evacuated quickly in case of natural disasters such as floods. Furthermore, it is essential that a focus be made in the development of an economy that is based on low carbon initiatives because this is one of the ways through which individuals can live in a clean environment while at the same time limiting potential risks associated with climate change. Infrastructure should be designed to ensure that they can withstand most of the effects of climate change because without such infrastructure, it would be extremely costly to build new ones every time a natural disaster takes place (“Climate Resilient Infrastructure: Preparing for a Changing Climate,” 2011, p.14). Therefore, infrastructure has to be designed in a scientific manner so that they are proven to be able to weather different serious conditions before they are constructed.

Improving living standards

It has been proven that improving the standard of living for urban residents, especially in poorer areas, ensures that there are less factors contributing to global warming. It is also true that inequalities can still be seen in many parts of diverse urban areas, and it is possible that policies designed to improve living standards might have a positive impact on some individuals, while having an opposite impact on others (Strange and Bayley, 2008, p.15). Therefore, although the improvement of living standards might have a positive impact through the development of a cleaner environment, some individuals might end up becoming the losers. An example of this is through the introduction of measures designed to improve water efficiency in urban areas are implemented through the introduction of meters. If such measures are actively undertaken, it is more likely than not that those people from low income groups might receive higher water bills than they already do, and this might end up doing them more harm than good. It is therefore essential that when urban administrations attempt to adopt measures designed to improve the lives of their populations, they must first consider the potential impacts of the measures that they take because they might end up making difficult situations even worse.