Climate Change in Urban Areas

Climate change has over the years developed into a problem that many individuals across the world have become concerned about. This concern has been growing especially in urban areas where a majority of the world’s population currently lives. Energy consumption is a major concern in urban areas because it creates a situation where it has a direct impact on climate change. Urban areas show a much higher consumption of energy than rural areas and this means that the former have a larger footprint than the latter. Urban centres as continuously growing and this will likely have an impact on the environment because the increasing population will require space, services, and goods which will have a direct impact on climate change through a greater ecological footprint (Lanko, 2011, p.11). It is therefore essential to make a study of the effects of climate change on urban areas to determine how these effects should be taken into account in urban planning.

1. In what ways does climate change impact upon urban areas?

Rising sea levels

Studies have shown that climate change is going to have an impact on urban areas along coastlines because of a potential rise in sea levels (Walsh, et al. 2010, p.76). This might result in flooding as well as the potential loss of lives in case sudden floods take place. Because a large number of cities are established along coastlines, it is possible that these areas will become affected and this has made it imperative for there to be contingency measures to deal with this potential problem. Rising sea levels would mean that a large number of settlements would have to be abandoned because the water levels would not allow for permanent settlements. Furthermore, rising sea levels might lead to a serious housing crisis in many urban areas because much needed land would end up under water. The growing urban population makes this problem potentially worse because many of these individuals tend to live in buildings that are not well constructed and can only be termed as slams. Therefore, in case of sea levels rising, it is possible that evacuation might become extremely difficult since the flooding might come about suddenly, creating a situation where rescue efforts are not effective (Tigay, 2011, p.733). This is the case in India where large parts of its population, estimated to be about 70%, live in urban areas. The rise of sea levels even by a few metres might cause problems for a large percentage of this population because many of their settlements would be under water. Under these circumstances, populations in urban areas are likely to suffer from flooding of land which might have a negative impact in the whole of their lives. There is a possibility that a rise in sea levels might bring about the salinisation of water resources; a resource that is often scarce in urban areas. Furthermore, rising sea levels might bring about the destruction of ecosystems and natural habitats that are essential in the supply of much needed products to urban areas; essentially making these places inhabitable.

Access to water

Climate change is likely to bring about changes in patterns of precipitation as well as the water cycle in such a way that it results in a threat in the water supply of large urban centres (“Climate change and the urban environment,” 2010, p.9). This is especially the case in large cities because it would be extremely difficult to supply water efficiently to its entire population. The ongoing rural to urban migration as well as the growth of the population in urban centres could make the problem worse because a large population means a need for greater access to water. With climate change, urban governments will have a hard task in ensuring that the entire population has access to clean water. There is also a possibility that the quality of water supplied within urban areas would be greatly reduced because it might not undergo the necessary checks and treatment before being distributed because of high demand for it. The risk of a drying up of water resources means that those urban areas in dry regions will be hit hard since many of them rely heavily on water supplies from wetter areas as well as from reservoirs (Katel, 2011, p.1025). However, with an increase in global warming due to climate change, the reliability of reservoirs will be put to question, especially in circumstances where there is not enough rainfall. The large urban population might end up being left with very little water and as a result face shortages that bring about a lowering of living standards in cities. Climate change is therefore increasingly putting water resources in urban centres at risk of either reducing significantly or even drying up, and this to the detriment of its population.

Health risks

Cities in developing countries, especially those in tropical areas, have a high potential of having increasing cases of diseases related to the environment as a result of climate change. Global warming helps produce an environment in these cities where it is easier for such parasites as mosquitoes to breed and this might bring about an increase in incidents of malaria and yellow fever. The water puddles in which mosquitoes breed tend to come about in areas where there is excessive rainfall of in rivers where there are droughts and this means that changes in climate might bring about these conditions. In relation to the point made above, water shortages brought about by climate change might have an impact on the spread of diseases within urban areas due to lack of sanitation. In this way, such diseases as cholera and typhoid become more prevalent since access to water resources in these areas might end up being limited. In recent years, there has also been a rise in respiratory diseases in urban areas as a result of higher temperatures in warmer cities which has the effect of increasing the impact of pollution. A majority of the people who live in urban areas are poor and these are barely able to make a living. In circumstances where there is climate change, they are the poor are the ones who suffer the most because they do not have the possibilities to adapt to these changes that their wealthier counterparts do (Price, 2014, p.673). The inadequate sanitation that is a feature of poor neighbourhoods due to their crowded conditions as well as poor supply of water means that any changes in climate might bring about a health crisis in these areas. Under such conditions, there is always a risk that areas within cities that were previously not affected by contagious diseases end up becoming victims.

Heat waves

Changing climate has brought about the development of global warming that has increased the risk of heat waves in urban areas. This is because in general, urban areas are warmer than surrounding regions as a result of a higher usage of energy as well as the modification that has taken place on the land surface (Gillis, 2013). It should be noted that in recent years, there have been more incidents of deaths from heat waves in urban areas than in previous periods. Heat waves as a result of climate change have therefore become a real issue in today’s urban societies because individuals tend to be caught unawares and might end up being struck down unexpectedly (Meehl and Tebaldi, 2004, p.994). In most parts of the world, heat waves are a new phenomenon and its coming about more frequently and with an increased intensity can be attributed to climate changes which have come about as a result of human activity especially in urban areas. Waste heat that is produced in urban areas as a result of massive energy use by its population has increased chances of death occurring as a result of heat waves. Predictions of heat waves have shown that in coming years, as they become more intense and frequent, it is likely that hundreds of people in urban areas across the world might end up losing their lives in these incidents. Therefore, while studies concerning this increasingly frequent phenomenon are being conducted in order to find solutions, the risks to urban populations remain constant because climate change patterns have become extremely unpredictable.

Damage to infrastructure

Recent years have seen massive losses of infrastructure in urban areas into billions of dollars and these have been caused by natural forces such as cyclones that are as a direct result of climate change. Changes in the climate have made weather patterns very unpredictable because even with modern technology, it is often difficult to predict how forces of nature are going to impact on different areas. Urban areas have borne the brunt of damaged infrastructure because such damage, such as flooding as well as destruction of electricity lines have made it almost impossible for people in these places to return to life as normal in the immediate aftermath of these events (Lehmann, 2014). Urban areas tend to have a large assortment of architectural designs that range from traditional to modern and this has allowed for diversity in these environments. However, climate change has changed that status of traditional houses in such a manner that in case of natural disasters, they have come to be considered unsafe. This is because they are some of the most vulnerable structures in the urban areas, with many of them being carried away or utterly destroyed in such occurrences as cyclones or floods. The result has been that a large number of individuals who live in urban areas have come to be at risk from natural occurrences that might take place at any time and over which they have no control. Because of their large concentration of human populations, urban areas have become places where individuals are at a high risk of becoming victims of natural disasters.

2. To what extend should these impacts be taken into account when evaluating the sustainability of urban projects?

Reduction of carbon emissions

When making evaluations concerning the sustainability of urban projects, it is essential to put the impacts of climate change into consideration because it is the only way to ensure long term planning. Through taking into account the impact of climate change, it is possible for successful and sustainable urban projects to be developed and put into practice (Polycarp, Patel, and Seong, 2013, p.19). Efforts should be made to ensure that the negative impacts of climate change do not affect urban centres and projects that are undertaken within them through the development of policies designed to minimise the impacts stated above. Therefore, for the sustainability of urban projects to be achieved, it should be a requirement that the use of those technologies that have low carbon emission levels be introduced within urban centres. These technologies have to include the use of renewable energy sources such as wind and solar energy, which release little or no emissions into the atmosphere. The administrations of urban centres should also set out to address issues related to potential shortages of water as a result of climate change because it is this resource is what ensures that life in cities remains constant. Governments should take seriously all serious proposals concerning the manner through which to make sure that urban centres are able to significantly reduce their contribution to climate change. These proposals have to include the complete removal of carbon emissions not only in all public places, but also in residential buildings and this should be done through cities’ setting standards that have to be followed by all residents.

Introduction of green energy

To reduce the amount of waste energy that is a contributory factor in the occurrence of heat waves, it is essential that urban planners include the use of green energy in their policies. Green energy can be used in public transport because this is often the main means of transport in most urban areas with a majority of their population using it. The use of this energy will make possible a serious reduction in waste energy produced within society and will ensure that urban populations make green transport the norm. Through correct policies, the diverse transport networks in almost all cities in the world can be thoroughly transformed to such an extent that there are zero emission rates as a result of using green energy (Smith, 2013). The implementation of green energy policies would ensure that only the most preferred modes of transport are those that emit very little or no carbon into the atmosphere, hence ensuring that individuals in urban areas take responsibility for their environment through fighting climate change. Urban governments could propose the use of hybrid and electric vehicles as well as hydrogen buses as means of transport to ensure that the climate around cities does not change as a result of the use of fossil fuels. Moreover, these governments should discourage the use of private means of transport within urban areas and instead encourage people in their jurisdiction to use public transport, and when not going for long distances, to use bicycles or just walk. These actions are meant to ensure that the large numbers of vehicles in urban areas that emit carbon are removed from use; hence a cleaner environment and less contribution to climate change.

Waste management

Among initiatives that have to be put at the forefront of urban planning and projects is the proper disposal of waste within these areas. Proper waste disposal ensures that pollution levels within urban areas are reduced significantly enough to improve the quality of life for their residents. Furthermore, decomposing waste tends to have an impact on the urban environment through not only ruining the quality of air within cities, but also through increasing the levels of heat that might lead to risks of heat waves that put urban populations at risk. Waste management can be done through the recycling of waste materials as well as a reduction in the amount of rubbish that has not been disposed as well as ensuring that there is efficient use of energy in the preservation of food so that it does not go bad (Davidson, 2011, p.13). One would that suggest that as soon as waste management policies are not only put into serious consideration but also actively implemented, it might bring about low carbon emissions but also ensure that there is efficient use of available resources in urban areas. The latter can be achieved through encouraging individuals in urban areas to only purchase food for their immediate needs rather than getting more at the risk of not using it at all, thus increasing the waste problem in their environment. Through proper waste management strategies, it is possible that people in urban areas as well as their governments will end up saving money which can be put into better use elsewhere.

Restoration of infrastructure and slum areas

Restoration projects in slums are also important in the development of a safe environment within urban areas because they ensure that a safer environment is provided for the people that live in these places. The demolition of old traditional buildings and building better ones in their place as well as restoring those that are strong enough to withstand natural disasters means that the urban environment is made safer against the effects of climate change (McKee, 2012). Such restoration projects would be of immense help for urban people because it would ensure that they live in a clean environment which can be sustained in that state. The places that are overcrowded and considered slums should be provided funding through their administrations that can to be used in their transformation into clean environments. Moreover, there should be a focus in the improvement of the available public spaces, in addition to creating new ones, and funding must be provided in ensuring that this is made possible. This can be done to make sure that the urban environment is also filled with nature as well as areas to which populations can be evacuated quickly in case of natural disasters such as floods. Furthermore, it is essential that a focus be made in the development of an economy that is based on low carbon initiatives because this is one of the ways through which individuals can live in a clean environment while at the same time limiting potential risks associated with climate change. Infrastructure should be designed to ensure that they can withstand most of the effects of climate change because without such infrastructure, it would be extremely costly to build new ones every time a natural disaster takes place (“Climate Resilient Infrastructure: Preparing for a Changing Climate,” 2011, p.14). Therefore, infrastructure has to be designed in a scientific manner so that they are proven to be able to weather different serious conditions before they are constructed.

Improving living standards

It has been proven that improving the standard of living for urban residents, especially in poorer areas, ensures that there are less factors contributing to global warming. It is also true that inequalities can still be seen in many parts of diverse urban areas, and it is possible that policies designed to improve living standards might have a positive impact on some individuals, while having an opposite impact on others (Strange and Bayley, 2008, p.15). Therefore, although the improvement of living standards might have a positive impact through the development of a cleaner environment, some individuals might end up becoming the losers. An example of this is through the introduction of measures designed to improve water efficiency in urban areas are implemented through the introduction of meters. If such measures are actively undertaken, it is more likely than not that those people from low income groups might receive higher water bills than they already do, and this might end up doing them more harm than good. It is therefore essential that when urban administrations attempt to adopt measures designed to improve the lives of their populations, they must first consider the potential impacts of the measures that they take because they might end up making difficult situations even worse.

Conclusion

The discussion above has shown that climate change has different impacts on urban areas. Among these is that it leads to a rise in sea levels that might cause harm to those places in urban areas that fall below sea level. Furthermore, climate change puts urban areas at risk of losing access to much needed water resources as a result of salination as well as droughts. In addition, urban areas might end up having sanitary and health problems as a result of increasingly wet or dry weather that brings with them a multitude of diseases. Heat waves are also a result of climate change and these are increasingly causing harm or death among urban populations. Finally, a result of extreme weather due to climate change, urban areas have come to face many problems as a result of damage to infrastructure which are very expensive to replace. The discussion has also dealt with how impacts of climate change can also be taken into account when evaluating sustainability in urban projects. Among these is an attempt towards decrease of carbon productions into the atmosphere to ensure that there is a reduction in the impact of global warming. Furthermore, the discussion has shown that the introduction of green energy is also essential in reducing waste energy and by extension the impact of heat waves. Proper waste management as well as the restoration of infrastructure are also issues that have to be put into consideration in evaluating the sustainability of urban projects. Finally, it is essential to also consider improving the living standards of individuals in urban areas because this has a positive impact on reduction of effects of climate change.

Natural Systems in the Middle East

The natural systems of the world are some of the most its most important aspects since they are the ones which enable the earth to sustain itself and all the creatures that are within it. The various natural systems are the ones which define the environmental zones that can be found all over the world, and without them, then the earth would be unrecognizable. In some cases, it is possible that without the natural systems, then the earth would become a harsh environment indeed, not being able to sustain those that currently exist within it. Since time immemorial, human beings have had to adapt to these different natural systems in order to survive and throughout this time, this race has proven to be among the most resilient in the world. While one cannot help but commend the hardiness of this race in its ability to survive even some of the harshest conditions in the world, it should be noted that human beings, through their activities, have had an impact on the naturals systems within which they have come to settle. This is a consequence of the of their attempts to adapt to these environments and while some of the impacts may be positive, sadly, a majority of them tend to be negative, as it has often led to the destruction of the natural systems that are involved. Among the most affected areas in the world today, due to human activity, is the Middle East where there has existed, for thousands of years, great civilizations, which have impacted significantly on the natural systems.

Human beings in the Middle East were, for a long time, primarily pastoralists and because of this, they had an impact on the environment. This region is primarily arid or semiarid and because of this, the pastoralists had to move from place to place with their livestock in order to find sustenance. These people tended to have large herds which fed on the scarce vegetation that could be found in this region at the time. As a consequence, large tracts of rare vegetation were destroyed by these animals and with this destruction also came the destruction of many diverse ecosystems. With the destruction of the plant life also came the continued desertification of the region as the scarce plant cover was stripped away by the large herds of livestock. In recent times, however, as many people in the region have come to abandon pastoralism in favor of living in urban areas, some of the vegetation that were almost completely destroyed have began to thrive again.

The Middle East is a major source of oil and natural gas and it has been stated that it holds some of the largest reserves of these resources in the world. These resources have, over the last few decades, been a major source of income for the countries which can be found in this region. Not only has it enabled their governments have plenty of wealth to fund expansive social welfare systems, but it has also enabled the increase of the standard of living, with some even stating that these standards are higher than those in the Western world. While this is true, there has also been a significant impact on the environment. The first of these has been the discharge of carbon fumes to the environment from the oil mining sites. The mining of oil and its refining involves the burning of the fossil fuels involved so that the product can be extracted from the ground, and this means that there has been a rise in the carbon emissions in the region in recent decades. While the mining of oil has and continues to be a profitable venture, it has come to bring harm to the environment as it has contributed an immense deal in global warming. While some places in the Middle East were extremely dry, with the commencement of oil mining, these places have become even drier and hotter and this has led to the destruction of quite a number of plant and animal life since the increased heat has destroyed their ecosystems.

The increase in heat has also ensured that the scarce water resources that were previously available have become scarcer. The increase of the heat in the desert has meant that the rate of water evaporation has also increased and this has created a situation where life in this environment has become unsustainable. The plant life which depended on this scarce resource to survive now has less of an opportunity to survive because of the high rates of evaporation. Furthermore, the creatures which depended on these plants for survival have also come to reduce in number because there are not enough of the plants available to sustain them. Human activities in the Middle East have therefore created a situation where the natural ecosystems have come to slowly die away as they attempt to gain a profit from the natural resources available. It has become the norm for the human population in the region to move to the urban areas in search for a better life. This is because of the fact that the increasing heat in the desert has made life unbearable and the traditional, nomadic way of life has become unsustainable. The urban areas have now become the places where they can live comfortably due to the modern appliances that are available. The nomadic way of life, which was more in harmony with the environment, has largely been abandoned and this has created a situation where it is difficult to maintain the natural environment as multinational corporations move into the seemingly abandoned areas to prospect for oil. The natural systems are therefore being slowly destroyed with very little being done to stop their destruction either by the governments involved or by their business partners.

The population of the Middle East is currently largely concentrated in the urban areas and this has created a situation where the likelihood of pollution of all types has become a reality. The burning of fossil fuels in such concentrated areas as the cities has led to high levels of air pollution which has come to affect the natural systems which are close to these cities. The pollution of air has not only caused related diseases in human beings, but it has also done so in animals which have come into contact with this polluted air. While thee diseases can be easily diagnosed among human beings and treated, in animals living in the wild, this is impossible and it has in fact led to the reduction of this animals to a level which can be considered near extinction. While the numbers are not currently known, this senseless destruction of animal life has come to destroy the various natural systems, which depend on the significant numbers of these animals to remain sustainable. The destruction of such systems means that entire habitats are at risk of either leading to the extinction of certain species of both plants and animals, or the possibility of these habitats becoming unpredictable. This would create a situation where certain species of plants or animals would be able to gain an advantage over others as some parts of the food chain will be removed, enabling the population of some to increase at the expense of others.

The rapid human population growth in the Middle East has come to affect the natural systems available, especially those that deal with water. Historically, the Middle East is known as a place which has had extremely little water resources and because of the rare occurrences of rainfall, it is difficult to have a steady replenishing of the water supply. The population growth of this region is putting an immense strain on the available water resources as the demand for this commodity continues to increase by the day. It has also led to a belief within the scientific community that if something is not done to ensure the security of this resource, then the Middle East is in danger of falling into a situation akin to famine, where the entire population as well as the natural systems involved are likely to fail. The insatiable need for water is slowly but surely depleting this resource and there is a fear that it may lead to a shortage in the food supply of the region. Such a shortage is likely to create a situation where there may develop political instability in the region, and as is well known, such occurrences tend to lead to conflicts which have the potential of further worsening the environmental situation. The shortage of water will probably be caused by nations which fail to cooperate in the equitable allocation of the water resources they share, since they continue to behave more as rivals than as partners when this precious resource is concerned and this is likely to lead to future conflict.

Another part of the natural systems in the Middle East that has been affected by human activity has been the marine environment, which has increased significantly over the last century. The coastal engineering projects that have been put in place either by the governments and private interests of the Middle East have contributed an immense deal in the changing or damaging of the marine natural systems. In addition, there has been increased shipping in the Middle East due to the development of the oil industry as well as the increased purchasing power of many Middle Eastern states. The ships which sail along the coast of this region tend to bring about plenty of pollution since the fumes they emit as well as the oil that is spilled into the oceans come to affect the marine life of the Middle East. This has come to change the marine ecosystems in the places affected as some marine life have either had to move away from their natural habitats which have become inhospitable, or others have been destroyed.

The marine environment of the Middle East has also come to be affected, in recent times, by the development of desalination plants for the purposes of providing fresh water for the region’s population. While these plants are good for the people because they allow them to have fresh water, they have a disastrous impact on the marine ecosystem of the region. A lot of energy is used during the desalination process and this naturally leads to the emission of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Furthermore, the salt which is the end product of the desalination process is dumped back into the sea; it has a massive environmental impact on marine life because it creates a situation where the salt concentration in the water is doubled. The increased salt concentration in the seawater has the potential of killing many marine organisms and it is possible that it can also cause damage to the marine population.

It can be concluded that human beings have indeed had quite an impact on the natural systems of the Middle East as they have attempted to adapt to their environment. To be able to live comfortably, human beings have made advances both in their social lives and also technologically. These, however, while succeeding in their goal of providing comfort have also taken a toll on the natural systems in the region. Throughout the ages, livestock have been reared to provide sustenance but in this region, they have also led to the rapid desertification of certain areas as they have ended up stripping away the plant cover. Moreover, in modern times, humans have developed desalination plants as well as oil wells so that they can get fresh water and satisfy the demand for oil respectively. While both of these ventures have bee highly profitable, this profit has come at the expense of the natural environment as in some places, whole ecosystems have been destroyed. The concentration of the human population in the urban areas has led to an increase in the pollution levels which have had an impact on the natural systems that exist near them, or those in areas where the resources needed to supply the cities are found. It can, therefore, be said that human beings have had a significant impact on the natural systems of these region.

How the Environment Influences the Body Plans of Organisms

The body plan of an organism is the most basic arrangement of the tissue layers in that organism without any details concerning the arrangement of its internal organs and the most basic and greatest influence on the body plans of organisms is the environment. The fundamental body plans such as the size of an organism can be determined by the environment in which it lives. According to Fastovsky and Weishampol (2005), all organisms are subject to design constraints. Organisms that live in the air or in water are acted upon by gravity and this causes their ancestry to limit the structures that they can evolve. For example, you will never find a propeller on the nose of a bird, even though that would be the most efficient way to propel the animal, because the evolutionary process works by descent with the modification of existing structures and not the wholesale invention of new ones.

Hoffmann and Parsons (1997) state that the body plans of organisms can be influenced by the types of landscapes encountered by them.  It is very difficult for a population to move from one environment to another when natural barriers such as mountains and seas because there are large differences between their current forms and the alternative forms which they would need to cross these barriers. Therefore, these natural barriers keep the organisms within one environment and in order to survive, they will have to develop the essential body plans to suit that environment. In other words, their inability to move from this environment will lead to a stasis in the development of their body plans and these will instead remain in their current state with little or no change over a long period of time.

Tobin and Dusheck (2005) declare that the body plans of organisms such as the particular arrangements of bones in the limbs of horses, whales, and humans may simply be a case of organisms making do with what they have. Organisms tend to reuse the same parts and materials, reshaping them for new purposes. A good example of this would be when one considers the whale which, although it is a mammal, lives in the ocean. Unlike other mammals, it does not have the legs it would normally have had if it had been living on land and instead, those limbs that would have formed legs on land have instead developed into fins to enable it to survive in the ocean efficiently. Furthermore, the body of the whale is too big to survive on land and it is instead adapted to life in the ocean because the water can not only support its weight, but there is also enough space within it to ensure that the whale is able to navigate within it.

In conclusion, different environments influence the development of different body plans to adapt to them. For example, the camel is very well adapted to life in the desert because it has developed padded hooves to be able to walk on the desert sand, long legs and neck to keep it from sinking into the sand and enable it to breath respectively, and a hump to store water because of the scarcity of this resource in the desert. Examples of other body plans include camouflage to avoid predators and the extreme height of some trees in forests in order to gain light for photosynthesis.

References

Fastovsky, D E. & Weishampol, D B. (2005). The Evolution and the Extinction of the Dinosaurs. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.

Hoffmann, A A. & Parsons, P A. (1997). Extreme Environmental Change and Evolution. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.

Tobin, A J & Dusheck, J. (2005). Asking About Life. Andover, United Kingdom: Cengage Learning.