Climate Change in Urban Areas

Climate change has over the years developed into a problem that many individuals across the world have become concerned about. This concern has been growing especially in urban areas where a majority of the world’s population currently lives. Energy consumption is a major concern in urban areas because it creates a situation where it has a direct impact on climate change. Urban areas show a much higher consumption of energy than rural areas and this means that the former have a larger footprint than the latter. Urban centres as continuously growing and this will likely have an impact on the environment because the increasing population will require space, services, and goods which will have a direct impact on climate change through a greater ecological footprint (Lanko, 2011, p.11). It is therefore essential to make a study of the effects of climate change on urban areas to determine how these effects should be taken into account in urban planning.

1. In what ways does climate change impact upon urban areas?

Rising sea levels

Studies have shown that climate change is going to have an impact on urban areas along coastlines because of a potential rise in sea levels (Walsh, et al. 2010, p.76). This might result in flooding as well as the potential loss of lives in case sudden floods take place. Because a large number of cities are established along coastlines, it is possible that these areas will become affected and this has made it imperative for there to be contingency measures to deal with this potential problem. Rising sea levels would mean that a large number of settlements would have to be abandoned because the water levels would not allow for permanent settlements. Furthermore, rising sea levels might lead to a serious housing crisis in many urban areas because much needed land would end up under water. The growing urban population makes this problem potentially worse because many of these individuals tend to live in buildings that are not well constructed and can only be termed as slams. Therefore, in case of sea levels rising, it is possible that evacuation might become extremely difficult since the flooding might come about suddenly, creating a situation where rescue efforts are not effective (Tigay, 2011, p.733). This is the case in India where large parts of its population, estimated to be about 70%, live in urban areas. The rise of sea levels even by a few metres might cause problems for a large percentage of this population because many of their settlements would be under water. Under these circumstances, populations in urban areas are likely to suffer from flooding of land which might have a negative impact in the whole of their lives. There is a possibility that a rise in sea levels might bring about the salinisation of water resources; a resource that is often scarce in urban areas. Furthermore, rising sea levels might bring about the destruction of ecosystems and natural habitats that are essential in the supply of much needed products to urban areas; essentially making these places inhabitable.

Access to water

Climate change is likely to bring about changes in patterns of precipitation as well as the water cycle in such a way that it results in a threat in the water supply of large urban centres (“Climate change and the urban environment,” 2010, p.9). This is especially the case in large cities because it would be extremely difficult to supply water efficiently to its entire population. The ongoing rural to urban migration as well as the growth of the population in urban centres could make the problem worse because a large population means a need for greater access to water. With climate change, urban governments will have a hard task in ensuring that the entire population has access to clean water. There is also a possibility that the quality of water supplied within urban areas would be greatly reduced because it might not undergo the necessary checks and treatment before being distributed because of high demand for it. The risk of a drying up of water resources means that those urban areas in dry regions will be hit hard since many of them rely heavily on water supplies from wetter areas as well as from reservoirs (Katel, 2011, p.1025). However, with an increase in global warming due to climate change, the reliability of reservoirs will be put to question, especially in circumstances where there is not enough rainfall. The large urban population might end up being left with very little water and as a result face shortages that bring about a lowering of living standards in cities. Climate change is therefore increasingly putting water resources in urban centres at risk of either reducing significantly or even drying up, and this to the detriment of its population.

Health risks

Cities in developing countries, especially those in tropical areas, have a high potential of having increasing cases of diseases related to the environment as a result of climate change. Global warming helps produce an environment in these cities where it is easier for such parasites as mosquitoes to breed and this might bring about an increase in incidents of malaria and yellow fever. The water puddles in which mosquitoes breed tend to come about in areas where there is excessive rainfall of in rivers where there are droughts and this means that changes in climate might bring about these conditions. In relation to the point made above, water shortages brought about by climate change might have an impact on the spread of diseases within urban areas due to lack of sanitation. In this way, such diseases as cholera and typhoid become more prevalent since access to water resources in these areas might end up being limited. In recent years, there has also been a rise in respiratory diseases in urban areas as a result of higher temperatures in warmer cities which has the effect of increasing the impact of pollution. A majority of the people who live in urban areas are poor and these are barely able to make a living. In circumstances where there is climate change, they are the poor are the ones who suffer the most because they do not have the possibilities to adapt to these changes that their wealthier counterparts do (Price, 2014, p.673). The inadequate sanitation that is a feature of poor neighbourhoods due to their crowded conditions as well as poor supply of water means that any changes in climate might bring about a health crisis in these areas. Under such conditions, there is always a risk that areas within cities that were previously not affected by contagious diseases end up becoming victims.

Heat waves

Changing climate has brought about the development of global warming that has increased the risk of heat waves in urban areas. This is because in general, urban areas are warmer than surrounding regions as a result of a higher usage of energy as well as the modification that has taken place on the land surface (Gillis, 2013). It should be noted that in recent years, there have been more incidents of deaths from heat waves in urban areas than in previous periods. Heat waves as a result of climate change have therefore become a real issue in today’s urban societies because individuals tend to be caught unawares and might end up being struck down unexpectedly (Meehl and Tebaldi, 2004, p.994). In most parts of the world, heat waves are a new phenomenon and its coming about more frequently and with an increased intensity can be attributed to climate changes which have come about as a result of human activity especially in urban areas. Waste heat that is produced in urban areas as a result of massive energy use by its population has increased chances of death occurring as a result of heat waves. Predictions of heat waves have shown that in coming years, as they become more intense and frequent, it is likely that hundreds of people in urban areas across the world might end up losing their lives in these incidents. Therefore, while studies concerning this increasingly frequent phenomenon are being conducted in order to find solutions, the risks to urban populations remain constant because climate change patterns have become extremely unpredictable.

Damage to infrastructure

Recent years have seen massive losses of infrastructure in urban areas into billions of dollars and these have been caused by natural forces such as cyclones that are as a direct result of climate change. Changes in the climate have made weather patterns very unpredictable because even with modern technology, it is often difficult to predict how forces of nature are going to impact on different areas. Urban areas have borne the brunt of damaged infrastructure because such damage, such as flooding as well as destruction of electricity lines have made it almost impossible for people in these places to return to life as normal in the immediate aftermath of these events (Lehmann, 2014). Urban areas tend to have a large assortment of architectural designs that range from traditional to modern and this has allowed for diversity in these environments. However, climate change has changed that status of traditional houses in such a manner that in case of natural disasters, they have come to be considered unsafe. This is because they are some of the most vulnerable structures in the urban areas, with many of them being carried away or utterly destroyed in such occurrences as cyclones or floods. The result has been that a large number of individuals who live in urban areas have come to be at risk from natural occurrences that might take place at any time and over which they have no control. Because of their large concentration of human populations, urban areas have become places where individuals are at a high risk of becoming victims of natural disasters.

2. To what extend should these impacts be taken into account when evaluating the sustainability of urban projects?

Reduction of carbon emissions

When making evaluations concerning the sustainability of urban projects, it is essential to put the impacts of climate change into consideration because it is the only way to ensure long term planning. Through taking into account the impact of climate change, it is possible for successful and sustainable urban projects to be developed and put into practice (Polycarp, Patel, and Seong, 2013, p.19). Efforts should be made to ensure that the negative impacts of climate change do not affect urban centres and projects that are undertaken within them through the development of policies designed to minimise the impacts stated above. Therefore, for the sustainability of urban projects to be achieved, it should be a requirement that the use of those technologies that have low carbon emission levels be introduced within urban centres. These technologies have to include the use of renewable energy sources such as wind and solar energy, which release little or no emissions into the atmosphere. The administrations of urban centres should also set out to address issues related to potential shortages of water as a result of climate change because it is this resource is what ensures that life in cities remains constant. Governments should take seriously all serious proposals concerning the manner through which to make sure that urban centres are able to significantly reduce their contribution to climate change. These proposals have to include the complete removal of carbon emissions not only in all public places, but also in residential buildings and this should be done through cities’ setting standards that have to be followed by all residents.

Introduction of green energy

To reduce the amount of waste energy that is a contributory factor in the occurrence of heat waves, it is essential that urban planners include the use of green energy in their policies. Green energy can be used in public transport because this is often the main means of transport in most urban areas with a majority of their population using it. The use of this energy will make possible a serious reduction in waste energy produced within society and will ensure that urban populations make green transport the norm. Through correct policies, the diverse transport networks in almost all cities in the world can be thoroughly transformed to such an extent that there are zero emission rates as a result of using green energy (Smith, 2013). The implementation of green energy policies would ensure that only the most preferred modes of transport are those that emit very little or no carbon into the atmosphere, hence ensuring that individuals in urban areas take responsibility for their environment through fighting climate change. Urban governments could propose the use of hybrid and electric vehicles as well as hydrogen buses as means of transport to ensure that the climate around cities does not change as a result of the use of fossil fuels. Moreover, these governments should discourage the use of private means of transport within urban areas and instead encourage people in their jurisdiction to use public transport, and when not going for long distances, to use bicycles or just walk. These actions are meant to ensure that the large numbers of vehicles in urban areas that emit carbon are removed from use; hence a cleaner environment and less contribution to climate change.

Waste management

Among initiatives that have to be put at the forefront of urban planning and projects is the proper disposal of waste within these areas. Proper waste disposal ensures that pollution levels within urban areas are reduced significantly enough to improve the quality of life for their residents. Furthermore, decomposing waste tends to have an impact on the urban environment through not only ruining the quality of air within cities, but also through increasing the levels of heat that might lead to risks of heat waves that put urban populations at risk. Waste management can be done through the recycling of waste materials as well as a reduction in the amount of rubbish that has not been disposed as well as ensuring that there is efficient use of energy in the preservation of food so that it does not go bad (Davidson, 2011, p.13). One would that suggest that as soon as waste management policies are not only put into serious consideration but also actively implemented, it might bring about low carbon emissions but also ensure that there is efficient use of available resources in urban areas. The latter can be achieved through encouraging individuals in urban areas to only purchase food for their immediate needs rather than getting more at the risk of not using it at all, thus increasing the waste problem in their environment. Through proper waste management strategies, it is possible that people in urban areas as well as their governments will end up saving money which can be put into better use elsewhere.

Restoration of infrastructure and slum areas

Restoration projects in slums are also important in the development of a safe environment within urban areas because they ensure that a safer environment is provided for the people that live in these places. The demolition of old traditional buildings and building better ones in their place as well as restoring those that are strong enough to withstand natural disasters means that the urban environment is made safer against the effects of climate change (McKee, 2012). Such restoration projects would be of immense help for urban people because it would ensure that they live in a clean environment which can be sustained in that state. The places that are overcrowded and considered slums should be provided funding through their administrations that can to be used in their transformation into clean environments. Moreover, there should be a focus in the improvement of the available public spaces, in addition to creating new ones, and funding must be provided in ensuring that this is made possible. This can be done to make sure that the urban environment is also filled with nature as well as areas to which populations can be evacuated quickly in case of natural disasters such as floods. Furthermore, it is essential that a focus be made in the development of an economy that is based on low carbon initiatives because this is one of the ways through which individuals can live in a clean environment while at the same time limiting potential risks associated with climate change. Infrastructure should be designed to ensure that they can withstand most of the effects of climate change because without such infrastructure, it would be extremely costly to build new ones every time a natural disaster takes place (“Climate Resilient Infrastructure: Preparing for a Changing Climate,” 2011, p.14). Therefore, infrastructure has to be designed in a scientific manner so that they are proven to be able to weather different serious conditions before they are constructed.

Improving living standards

It has been proven that improving the standard of living for urban residents, especially in poorer areas, ensures that there are less factors contributing to global warming. It is also true that inequalities can still be seen in many parts of diverse urban areas, and it is possible that policies designed to improve living standards might have a positive impact on some individuals, while having an opposite impact on others (Strange and Bayley, 2008, p.15). Therefore, although the improvement of living standards might have a positive impact through the development of a cleaner environment, some individuals might end up becoming the losers. An example of this is through the introduction of measures designed to improve water efficiency in urban areas are implemented through the introduction of meters. If such measures are actively undertaken, it is more likely than not that those people from low income groups might receive higher water bills than they already do, and this might end up doing them more harm than good. It is therefore essential that when urban administrations attempt to adopt measures designed to improve the lives of their populations, they must first consider the potential impacts of the measures that they take because they might end up making difficult situations even worse.

Conclusion

The discussion above has shown that climate change has different impacts on urban areas. Among these is that it leads to a rise in sea levels that might cause harm to those places in urban areas that fall below sea level. Furthermore, climate change puts urban areas at risk of losing access to much needed water resources as a result of salination as well as droughts. In addition, urban areas might end up having sanitary and health problems as a result of increasingly wet or dry weather that brings with them a multitude of diseases. Heat waves are also a result of climate change and these are increasingly causing harm or death among urban populations. Finally, a result of extreme weather due to climate change, urban areas have come to face many problems as a result of damage to infrastructure which are very expensive to replace. The discussion has also dealt with how impacts of climate change can also be taken into account when evaluating sustainability in urban projects. Among these is an attempt towards decrease of carbon productions into the atmosphere to ensure that there is a reduction in the impact of global warming. Furthermore, the discussion has shown that the introduction of green energy is also essential in reducing waste energy and by extension the impact of heat waves. Proper waste management as well as the restoration of infrastructure are also issues that have to be put into consideration in evaluating the sustainability of urban projects. Finally, it is essential to also consider improving the living standards of individuals in urban areas because this has a positive impact on reduction of effects of climate change.

Replacement of Traditional Agriculture with Biotechnology

One of the reasons why biotechnology should not replace traditional agriculture is that it will neither benefit the farmers in the developed world nor those in the developing world. This is mainly because biotechnology is profit driven and does not have the interests of farmers at heart. As a profit driven industry, biotechnology can be considered to be a means through which major agricultural corporations are attempting to increase the dependence of society on industrial products to the almost total exclusion of products from traditional farmers. The intensification of farmers’ dependence on industrial products through the adoption of biotechnology would ensure that they end up having to endure restrictions based on intellectual property rights owned by major biochemical corporations. The enforcement of these rights would mean that farmers would be denied the right to not only reproduces, but also to share and store the seeds that they have purchased. Such conditions would be highly detrimental to farmers and would force them to have to purchase expensive industrial products in order to continue practicing agriculture. It should be noted that without the much needed capital in order to purchase biotechnological products, most traditional farmers would be forced out of business, with the market being almost completely dominated by large corporations that are profit driven. Therefore, if biotechnology were to replace traditional agriculture, it would create a situation where it would be difficult for a significant number of people employed in the latter industry to survive the new market conditions. There would be an increase in the number of unemployed while at the same time ensure that agriculture is no longer a viable business except for large corporations that have the capital to survive the market.

If biotechnology were to replace traditional agriculture, such a situation would prove disastrous for small farmers as well as the poor individuals in the third world. This is especially because it would bring about the marginalization of small farmers because they would not have the resources they need to ensure that they are able to adopt biotechnology in their businesses. Furthermore, in the third world, it has become the norm for farmers to retain some of their crops so that they can be used as seeds during planting season. The system that has been developed by the latter has ensured that they do not lack the means of producing new crops on an annual basis; hence reducing their dependency on outside forces for their survival. The introduction of biotechnology would greatly hamper these farmers because not only would they be removed from the agricultural sector as a result of unfair competition, but they would also end up being left paupers in the process. Large corporations such as Monsanto, which are extremely ruthless in business, would make use of biotechnological products to remain dominant in the market through making sure that their products are cheaper than those produced through traditional agriculture. Countries in the third world would end up suffering because their exports would become compromised by biotechnology and this would be to such an extent that thousands, if not millions of people, would end up being unemployed. Such a situation would have a negative effect on these countries since it would allow for the continued dependence of the third world on economic aid from developed countries.

The introduction of biotechnology would bring about a situation where the ecological sovereignty of the rest of the world, especially in third world countries, would end up being compromised. Such a situation has already began taking place where large corporations are making a rush in these countries to ensure that they get the best genes from local crops to use in the development of their own biotechnological products. This situation has led to the loss of massive revenues by third world countries which would have used the billions lost to implement development projects at home. The compromising of the ecological sovereignty of the third world has led to a situation where it has become difficult for local farmers to receive the compensation that they deserve for the development of diverse crop strains over a period of many centuries. Instead, large corporations, using their immense resources, have been able to attain the various genetic strains from these farmers, usually without their knowledge, and make huge profits from them. The lack of reward for farmers in the third world can be considered to be as a result of the development of biotechnology by multinational corporations which are essentially profit-making entities which will do so at any given opportunity. Because biotechnology is almost completely in the hands of the private sector, specifically large corporations, it would be inadvisable to allow it to replace traditional agriculture because such a move would make these corporations richer at the expense of those individuals in the third world who have worked hard for centuries to develop diversity among their crops.

The adoption of biotechnology would not lead to the conservation of genetic diversity. This is because despite its capacity to help in the development of products that enhance biodiversity, biotechnology at the hands of multinational corporations would most likely not be willing to do so. For the most part, the strategy of large corporations is always to ensure that they create as large a market for single products as possible because such a move would help in lesser expenditure while enhancing their profits. Furthermore, through their owning of patents for their various products, corporations will prevent the development of improved varieties of crops on farms; thus hampering continued biodiversity. The influence that most of these corporations have all over the planet would end up undermining the efforts of individual farmers to practice their trade through creating diverse genetic strains of the same products. Instead, the monopoly of biotechnology would make it extremely difficult for poor farmers to have a say in the manner through which crops are developed. They would be forced to give up their livelihood for the sake of satisfying the desires of large corporations which, using their influence, will most likely end up making sure that patent laws protecting them are put in place in all countries within which they have operations. Thus, the biological complexity that has been the mainstay of traditional farming methods will end up being compromised; hurting both human and animal life in the process of the massive genetic erosion that will likely take place.

It has been argued that the adoption of biotechnology in place of traditional agriculture will ensure an ecologically safe and sustainable agriculture. This argument does not put into consideration the potential hazards that would be involved in the process. Biotechnology is essentially being implemented in a bid to patch-up the problems that were brought about through the use of agrochemical products that were promoted by those corporations that have taken a lead in biotechnology. There should be concern about the possibility of pest-resistant plants being able to transfer their genes to their wild relative; effectively leading to unintended consequences that might be harmful to the environment.

In conclusion, the discussion above attempts to show that biotechnology should not be allowed to replace traditional agriculture because it will result in more harm than good. One of the reasons states is that it will neither benefit the farmers in the developed world nor those in the developing world. Furthermore, it has been argued that if biotechnology were to replace traditional agriculture, such a situation would prove disastrous for small farmers as well as the poor individuals in the third world. Moreover, the introduction of biotechnology as a replacement for traditional agriculture would bring about a situation where the ecological sovereignty of the rest of the world, especially in third world countries, would end up being compromised. In addition, it has been argued that the adoption of biotechnology would not lead to the conservation of genetic diversity. Finally, the argument against biotechnology has been countered through the argument that that the adoption of biotechnology in place of traditional agriculture will ensure an ecologically safe and sustainable agriculture.