Organic and Ethical Products in the US and UK

The current generation of consumers in the United States and in the United Kingdom has come to have plenty of expectations concerning the products that they purchase and it has taken quite an effort by the various companies involved to ensure that these consumers are satisfied. Sales for organic and ethical products in the United States and the United Kingdom are rising, more so than sales for conventional products, and consumer demand for these products is increasing despite the global economic downturn. This is according to a survey conducted towards the end of 2009 which showed that approximately one quarter of the adult shoppers in these countries buy certified organic food or beverages and one third continue to pay more for organic foods. It has become the trend in these two countries for consumers to buy products that are perceived to fulfill environmentally friendly, natural, organic, local, or humane requirements and enhance the corporate responsibility profile of the companies that are involved in the supply of such products (Cho & Krasser, 2011). While some of the major retailers in the United States, such as Wal-Mart and Safeway are expanding their offerings of organic products, in the United Kingdom, on the other hand, the retailers seem to be reducing their offerings of similar products (Robins, 2012). Despite this being the case, among the offerings that are leading the way in retail stores are increased sales of organic breads and grain products and "ethical" drinks.

It was estimated that in the United States, the supermarket sales of environmentally friendly or ethical products would rise by as high as 8.7 percent by the end of 2009 to nearly thirty eight billion dollars, and increase from the previous year where sales of goods specifically labeled organic rose 17 percent to just over twenty six billion dollars. The increased sales of the so-called greener products, from energy-efficient light bulbs to organic produce, are more than likely, according to experts, to result in the increase of awareness of issues concerning the sustainability of the environment in the face of the global economic crisis and climate change (Freestone & McGoldrick, 2008). Despite the newfound awareness of the need for environmental sustainability, it has been found that with the economy foremost in consumers' minds, sensitive price concerns in the midst of the current recession is as one might expect having an effect on the market for ethical products. While this is the case, surveys that have been conducted indicate that more have an understanding of the environmental, social, and economic implications of their choices. The result is that quite a number of consumers will end up purchasing more expensive ethical products even in economically challenging times and this is because of the belief that it is worth it (Himes, 2007). The need to ensure that they adopt a lifestyle that is in accordance with sustaining the environment has ensured that consumers are ready to undertake any expense in order to attain ethical products. This new trend among consumers seems to have attained the attention of major retailers, not only in the United States and the United Kingdom but also all over the world, and these are slowly but surely shifting towards making offerings of these ethical products on their shelves.

While many companies in the United States and the United Kingdom have conducted surveys to find out how consumers end up buying ethical products, mostly online, this process has to be supplemented by these companies ensuring that there are open lines of communication available between them and consumers. This tends to be done to ensure that there is an understanding which helps in the determination of what the consumers want and this has the aim of creating a good and effective relationship between the retailers and the consumers of their products (Newman & Bartels, 2011). It has been found that the sales of ethical goods and services have increased despite the economic recession, growing to more than fifty billion pounds in the United Kingdom alone. Since the commencement of the economic recession some years back, the importance of ethical markets from Fairtrade products and green energy to free range and environmentally friendly food has grown from £35.5bn to £47.2bn, and in addition, the annual ethical consumer markets report have shown that sales in the sector have increased significantly since its inception in 1989 (Costache, 2012). It has been proven that the intervention by enlightened businesses, alongside regulatory intervention, is the forces driving the ethical sales growth. During the economic recession, it was found that some of the biggest Fairtrade conversions, whether it was chocolate or sugar, and business is beginning to act in response to the challenge of providing consumers with more sustainable products and services such as fish, palm oil and soya (Doherty & Tranchell, 2007). It can therefore be said that ethical consumers are still a vitally important agent of change, but alongside them, however, are the actions of progressive businesses which have become a significant contributor to sales growth in this sector.

The Fairtrade Foundation, which is based in the United Kingdom, is a non-profit organization that advocates for higher payments for crops produced by the world's poorest farmers. This organization, in 2012 stated that the retail sales of products traded under the Fairtrade banner in that year leapt to an estimated 1.57 billion pounds, and this was an increase of nineteen percent from the previous year. Fairtrade stated that this showed that consumers were not abandoning products for which they had to pay a premium despite the fact that they had tight household budgets in a tough economic climate (Hartlieb & Jones, 2009). It was found that Fairtrade's annual cocoa, sugar and banana sales have continued to receive significant growth in the past few years, and because of this, the organization has stated that its premiums, the extra that producers receive for business development, have also come to increase significantly (Smith, 2010). The certification and product labeling using the Fairtrade mark are the main tools used by the foundation to ensure that farmers receive a fair price, and this has often resulted in goods on shop shelves costing slightly more (McMurtry, 2009).

It has been stated that in order to design effective programs to satisfy the needs of ethical consumers, the retailers involved must have proper information concerning the specific product that they would like to sell. In addition, it has been found that the retailers should also conduct surveys to find out whether ethical consumers find their products satisfactory, and they are obliged to ensure that they get the best products in the market for their shelves (Ismail & Panni, 2008). An example of such course of action is to ensure that their products are made to be safe in every way and to achieve this, the retailer must be aware of the dangers that can be found in during the production and processing of their products. If those who make decisions within the retail stores are not aware of a particular problem in the product, it would be impossible for them to come up with reasonable solutions. The study draws as much as possible on impact assessment studies of existing schemes, but while this is the case, the availability of studies in relation to the various different labels and standards is sometimes limited. There are many methodological difficulties associated with in-depth impact assessment, and analytical assumptions may be required in the definition of study findings to derive overall expected development impacts as it is beyond the scope of this study to undertake independent impact assessments on each of the labeling schemes being analyzed.

Taking into Account Impacts of Climate Change in Evaluation of Urban Project Sustainability

Reduction of carbon emissions

When making evaluations concerning the sustainability of urban projects, it is essential to put the impacts of climate change into consideration because it is the only way to ensure long term planning. Through taking into account the impact of climate change, it is possible for successful and sustainable urban projects to be developed and put into practice (Polycarp, Patel, and Seong, 2013, p.19). Efforts should be made to ensure that the negative impacts of climate change do not affect urban centres and projects that are undertaken within them through the development of policies designed to minimise the impacts stated above. Therefore, for the sustainability of urban projects to be achieved, it should be a requirement that the use of those technologies that have low carbon emission levels be introduced within urban centres. These technologies have to include the use of renewable energy sources such as wind and solar energy, which release little or no emissions into the atmosphere. The administrations of urban centres should also set out to address issues related to potential shortages of water as a result of climate change because it is this resource is what ensures that life in cities remains constant. Governments should take seriously all serious proposals concerning the manner through which to make sure that urban centres are able to significantly reduce their contribution to climate change. These proposals have to include the complete removal of carbon emissions not only in all public places, but also in residential buildings and this should be done through cities’ setting standards that have to be followed by all residents.

Introduction of green energy

To reduce the amount of waste energy that is a contributory factor in the occurrence of heat waves, it is essential that urban planners include the use of green energy in their policies. Green energy can be used in public transport because this is often the main means of transport in most urban areas with a majority of their population using it. The use of this energy will make possible a serious reduction in waste energy produced within society and will ensure that urban populations make green transport the norm. Through correct policies, the diverse transport networks in almost all cities in the world can be thoroughly transformed to such an extent that there are zero emission rates as a result of using green energy (Smith, 2013). The implementation of green energy policies would ensure that only the most preferred modes of transport are those that emit very little or no carbon into the atmosphere, hence ensuring that individuals in urban areas take responsibility for their environment through fighting climate change. Urban governments could propose the use of hybrid and electric vehicles as well as hydrogen buses as means of transport to ensure that the climate around cities does not change as a result of the use of fossil fuels. Moreover, these governments should discourage the use of private means of transport within urban areas and instead encourage people in their jurisdiction to use public transport, and when not going for long distances, to use bicycles or just walk. These actions are meant to ensure that the large numbers of vehicles in urban areas that emit carbon are removed from use; hence a cleaner environment and less contribution to climate change.

Waste management

Among initiatives that have to be put at the forefront of urban planning and projects is the proper disposal of waste within these areas. Proper waste disposal ensures that pollution levels within urban areas are reduced significantly enough to improve the quality of life for their residents. Furthermore, decomposing waste tends to have an impact on the urban environment through not only ruining the quality of air within cities, but also through increasing the levels of heat that might lead to risks of heat waves that put urban populations at risk. Waste management can be done through the recycling of waste materials as well as a reduction in the amount of rubbish that has not been disposed as well as ensuring that there is efficient use of energy in the preservation of food so that it does not go bad (Davidson, 2011, p.13). One would that suggest that as soon as waste management policies are not only put into serious consideration but also actively implemented, it might bring about low carbon emissions but also ensure that there is efficient use of available resources in urban areas. The latter can be achieved through encouraging individuals in urban areas to only purchase food for their immediate needs rather than getting more at the risk of not using it at all, thus increasing the waste problem in their environment. Through proper waste management strategies, it is possible that people in urban areas as well as their governments will end up saving money which can be put into better use elsewhere.

Restoration of infrastructure and slum areas

Restoration projects in slums are also important in the development of a safe environment within urban areas because they ensure that a safer environment is provided for the people that live in these places. The demolition of old traditional buildings and building better ones in their place as well as restoring those that are strong enough to withstand natural disasters means that the urban environment is made safer against the effects of climate change (McKee, 2012). Such restoration projects would be of immense help for urban people because it would ensure that they live in a clean environment which can be sustained in that state. The places that are overcrowded and considered slums should be provided funding through their administrations that can to be used in their transformation into clean environments. Moreover, there should be a focus in the improvement of the available public spaces, in addition to creating new ones, and funding must be provided in ensuring that this is made possible. This can be done to make sure that the urban environment is also filled with nature as well as areas to which populations can be evacuated quickly in case of natural disasters such as floods. Furthermore, it is essential that a focus be made in the development of an economy that is based on low carbon initiatives because this is one of the ways through which individuals can live in a clean environment while at the same time limiting potential risks associated with climate change. Infrastructure should be designed to ensure that they can withstand most of the effects of climate change because without such infrastructure, it would be extremely costly to build new ones every time a natural disaster takes place (“Climate Resilient Infrastructure: Preparing for a Changing Climate,” 2011, p.14). Therefore, infrastructure has to be designed in a scientific manner so that they are proven to be able to weather different serious conditions before they are constructed.

Improving living standards

It has been proven that improving the standard of living for urban residents, especially in poorer areas, ensures that there are less factors contributing to global warming. It is also true that inequalities can still be seen in many parts of diverse urban areas, and it is possible that policies designed to improve living standards might have a positive impact on some individuals, while having an opposite impact on others (Strange and Bayley, 2008, p.15). Therefore, although the improvement of living standards might have a positive impact through the development of a cleaner environment, some individuals might end up becoming the losers. An example of this is through the introduction of measures designed to improve water efficiency in urban areas are implemented through the introduction of meters. If such measures are actively undertaken, it is more likely than not that those people from low income groups might receive higher water bills than they already do, and this might end up doing them more harm than good. It is therefore essential that when urban administrations attempt to adopt measures designed to improve the lives of their populations, they must first consider the potential impacts of the measures that they take because they might end up making difficult situations even worse.

Ways through which Climate Change Impacts Urban Areas

Rising sea levels

Studies have shown that climate change is going to have an impact on urban areas along coastlines because of a potential rise in sea levels (Walsh, et al. 2010, p.76). This might result in flooding as well as the potential loss of lives in case sudden floods take place. Because a large number of cities are established along coastlines, it is possible that these areas will become affected and this has made it imperative for there to be contingency measures to deal with this potential problem. Rising sea levels would mean that a large number of settlements would have to be abandoned because the water levels would not allow for permanent settlements. Furthermore, rising sea levels might lead to a serious housing crisis in many urban areas because much needed land would end up under water. The growing urban population makes this problem potentially worse because many of these individuals tend to live in buildings that are not well constructed and can only be termed as slams. Therefore, in case of sea levels rising, it is possible that evacuation might become extremely difficult since the flooding might come about suddenly, creating a situation where rescue efforts are not effective (Tigay, 2011, p.733). This is the case in India where large parts of its population, estimated to be about 70%, live in urban areas. The rise of sea levels even by a few metres might cause problems for a large percentage of this population because many of their settlements would be under water. Under these circumstances, populations in urban areas are likely to suffer from flooding of land which might have a negative impact in the whole of their lives. There is a possibility that a rise in sea levels might bring about the salinisation of water resources; a resource that is often scarce in urban areas. Furthermore, rising sea levels might bring about the destruction of ecosystems and natural habitats that are essential in the supply of much needed products to urban areas; essentially making these places inhabitable.

Access to water

Climate change is likely to bring about changes in patterns of precipitation as well as the water cycle in such a way that it results in a threat in the water supply of large urban centres (“Climate change and the urban environment,” 2010, p.9). This is especially the case in large cities because it would be extremely difficult to supply water efficiently to its entire population. The ongoing rural to urban migration as well as the growth of the population in urban centres could make the problem worse because a large population means a need for greater access to water. With climate change, urban governments will have a hard task in ensuring that the entire population has access to clean water. There is also a possibility that the quality of water supplied within urban areas would be greatly reduced because it might not undergo the necessary checks and treatment before being distributed because of high demand for it. The risk of a drying up of water resources means that those urban areas in dry regions will be hit hard since many of them rely heavily on water supplies from wetter areas as well as from reservoirs (Katel, 2011, p.1025). However, with an increase in global warming due to climate change, the reliability of reservoirs will be put to question, especially in circumstances where there is not enough rainfall. The large urban population might end up being left with very little water and as a result face shortages that bring about a lowering of living standards in cities. Climate change is therefore increasingly putting water resources in urban centres at risk of either reducing significantly or even drying up, and this to the detriment of its population.

Health risks

Cities in developing countries, especially those in tropical areas, have a high potential of having increasing cases of diseases related to the environment as a result of climate change. Global warming helps produce an environment in these cities where it is easier for such parasites as mosquitoes to breed and this might bring about an increase in incidents of malaria and yellow fever. The water puddles in which mosquitoes breed tend to come about in areas where there is excessive rainfall of in rivers where there are droughts and this means that changes in climate might bring about these conditions. In relation to the point made above, water shortages brought about by climate change might have an impact on the spread of diseases within urban areas due to lack of sanitation. In this way, such diseases as cholera and typhoid become more prevalent since access to water resources in these areas might end up being limited. In recent years, there has also been a rise in respiratory diseases in urban areas as a result of higher temperatures in warmer cities which has the effect of increasing the impact of pollution. A majority of the people who live in urban areas are poor and these are barely able to make a living. In circumstances where there is climate change, they are the poor are the ones who suffer the most because they do not have the possibilities to adapt to these changes that their wealthier counterparts do (Price, 2014, p.673). The inadequate sanitation that is a feature of poor neighbourhoods due to their crowded conditions as well as poor supply of water means that any changes in climate might bring about a health crisis in these areas. Under such conditions, there is always a risk that areas within cities that were previously not affected by contagious diseases end up becoming victims.

Heat waves

Changing climate has brought about the development of global warming that has increased the risk of heat waves in urban areas. This is because in general, urban areas are warmer than surrounding regions as a result of a higher usage of energy as well as the modification that has taken place on the land surface (Gillis, 2013). It should be noted that in recent years, there have been more incidents of deaths from heat waves in urban areas than in previous periods. Heat waves as a result of climate change have therefore become a real issue in today’s urban societies because individuals tend to be caught unawares and might end up being struck down unexpectedly (Meehl and Tebaldi, 2004, p.994). In most parts of the world, heat waves are a new phenomenon and its coming about more frequently and with an increased intensity can be attributed to climate changes which have come about as a result of human activity especially in urban areas. Waste heat that is produced in urban areas as a result of massive energy use by its population has increased chances of death occurring as a result of heat waves. Predictions of heat waves have shown that in coming years, as they become more intense and frequent, it is likely that hundreds of people in urban areas across the world might end up losing their lives in these incidents. Therefore, while studies concerning this increasingly frequent phenomenon are being conducted in order to find solutions, the risks to urban populations remain constant because climate change patterns have become extremely unpredictable.

Damage to infrastructure

Recent years have seen massive losses of infrastructure in urban areas into billions of dollars and these have been caused by natural forces such as cyclones that are as a direct result of climate change. Changes in the climate have made weather patterns very unpredictable because even with modern technology, it is often difficult to predict how forces of nature are going to impact on different areas. Urban areas have borne the brunt of damaged infrastructure because such damage, such as flooding as well as destruction of electricity lines have made it almost impossible for people in these places to return to life as normal in the immediate aftermath of these events (Lehmann, 2014). Urban areas tend to have a large assortment of architectural designs that range from traditional to modern and this has allowed for diversity in these environments. However, climate change has changed that status of traditional houses in such a manner that in case of natural disasters, they have come to be considered unsafe. This is because they are some of the most vulnerable structures in the urban areas, with many of them being carried away or utterly destroyed in such occurrences as cyclones or floods. The result has been that a large number of individuals who live in urban areas have come to be at risk from natural occurrences that might take place at any time and over which they have no control. Because of their large concentration of human populations, urban areas have become places where individuals are at a high risk of becoming victims of natural disasters.