Ways through which Climate Change Impacts Urban Areas

Rising sea levels

Studies have shown that climate change is going to have an impact on urban areas along coastlines because of a potential rise in sea levels (Walsh, et al. 2010, p.76). This might result in flooding as well as the potential loss of lives in case sudden floods take place. Because a large number of cities are established along coastlines, it is possible that these areas will become affected and this has made it imperative for there to be contingency measures to deal with this potential problem. Rising sea levels would mean that a large number of settlements would have to be abandoned because the water levels would not allow for permanent settlements. Furthermore, rising sea levels might lead to a serious housing crisis in many urban areas because much needed land would end up under water. The growing urban population makes this problem potentially worse because many of these individuals tend to live in buildings that are not well constructed and can only be termed as slams. Therefore, in case of sea levels rising, it is possible that evacuation might become extremely difficult since the flooding might come about suddenly, creating a situation where rescue efforts are not effective (Tigay, 2011, p.733). This is the case in India where large parts of its population, estimated to be about 70%, live in urban areas. The rise of sea levels even by a few metres might cause problems for a large percentage of this population because many of their settlements would be under water. Under these circumstances, populations in urban areas are likely to suffer from flooding of land which might have a negative impact in the whole of their lives. There is a possibility that a rise in sea levels might bring about the salinisation of water resources; a resource that is often scarce in urban areas. Furthermore, rising sea levels might bring about the destruction of ecosystems and natural habitats that are essential in the supply of much needed products to urban areas; essentially making these places inhabitable.

Access to water

Climate change is likely to bring about changes in patterns of precipitation as well as the water cycle in such a way that it results in a threat in the water supply of large urban centres (“Climate change and the urban environment,” 2010, p.9). This is especially the case in large cities because it would be extremely difficult to supply water efficiently to its entire population. The ongoing rural to urban migration as well as the growth of the population in urban centres could make the problem worse because a large population means a need for greater access to water. With climate change, urban governments will have a hard task in ensuring that the entire population has access to clean water. There is also a possibility that the quality of water supplied within urban areas would be greatly reduced because it might not undergo the necessary checks and treatment before being distributed because of high demand for it. The risk of a drying up of water resources means that those urban areas in dry regions will be hit hard since many of them rely heavily on water supplies from wetter areas as well as from reservoirs (Katel, 2011, p.1025). However, with an increase in global warming due to climate change, the reliability of reservoirs will be put to question, especially in circumstances where there is not enough rainfall. The large urban population might end up being left with very little water and as a result face shortages that bring about a lowering of living standards in cities. Climate change is therefore increasingly putting water resources in urban centres at risk of either reducing significantly or even drying up, and this to the detriment of its population.

Health risks

Cities in developing countries, especially those in tropical areas, have a high potential of having increasing cases of diseases related to the environment as a result of climate change. Global warming helps produce an environment in these cities where it is easier for such parasites as mosquitoes to breed and this might bring about an increase in incidents of malaria and yellow fever. The water puddles in which mosquitoes breed tend to come about in areas where there is excessive rainfall of in rivers where there are droughts and this means that changes in climate might bring about these conditions. In relation to the point made above, water shortages brought about by climate change might have an impact on the spread of diseases within urban areas due to lack of sanitation. In this way, such diseases as cholera and typhoid become more prevalent since access to water resources in these areas might end up being limited. In recent years, there has also been a rise in respiratory diseases in urban areas as a result of higher temperatures in warmer cities which has the effect of increasing the impact of pollution. A majority of the people who live in urban areas are poor and these are barely able to make a living. In circumstances where there is climate change, they are the poor are the ones who suffer the most because they do not have the possibilities to adapt to these changes that their wealthier counterparts do (Price, 2014, p.673). The inadequate sanitation that is a feature of poor neighbourhoods due to their crowded conditions as well as poor supply of water means that any changes in climate might bring about a health crisis in these areas. Under such conditions, there is always a risk that areas within cities that were previously not affected by contagious diseases end up becoming victims.

Heat waves

Changing climate has brought about the development of global warming that has increased the risk of heat waves in urban areas. This is because in general, urban areas are warmer than surrounding regions as a result of a higher usage of energy as well as the modification that has taken place on the land surface (Gillis, 2013). It should be noted that in recent years, there have been more incidents of deaths from heat waves in urban areas than in previous periods. Heat waves as a result of climate change have therefore become a real issue in today’s urban societies because individuals tend to be caught unawares and might end up being struck down unexpectedly (Meehl and Tebaldi, 2004, p.994). In most parts of the world, heat waves are a new phenomenon and its coming about more frequently and with an increased intensity can be attributed to climate changes which have come about as a result of human activity especially in urban areas. Waste heat that is produced in urban areas as a result of massive energy use by its population has increased chances of death occurring as a result of heat waves. Predictions of heat waves have shown that in coming years, as they become more intense and frequent, it is likely that hundreds of people in urban areas across the world might end up losing their lives in these incidents. Therefore, while studies concerning this increasingly frequent phenomenon are being conducted in order to find solutions, the risks to urban populations remain constant because climate change patterns have become extremely unpredictable.

Damage to infrastructure

Recent years have seen massive losses of infrastructure in urban areas into billions of dollars and these have been caused by natural forces such as cyclones that are as a direct result of climate change. Changes in the climate have made weather patterns very unpredictable because even with modern technology, it is often difficult to predict how forces of nature are going to impact on different areas. Urban areas have borne the brunt of damaged infrastructure because such damage, such as flooding as well as destruction of electricity lines have made it almost impossible for people in these places to return to life as normal in the immediate aftermath of these events (Lehmann, 2014). Urban areas tend to have a large assortment of architectural designs that range from traditional to modern and this has allowed for diversity in these environments. However, climate change has changed that status of traditional houses in such a manner that in case of natural disasters, they have come to be considered unsafe. This is because they are some of the most vulnerable structures in the urban areas, with many of them being carried away or utterly destroyed in such occurrences as cyclones or floods. The result has been that a large number of individuals who live in urban areas have come to be at risk from natural occurrences that might take place at any time and over which they have no control. Because of their large concentration of human populations, urban areas have become places where individuals are at a high risk of becoming victims of natural disasters.

Threats to the Spotted Tree Frog

One of the greatest threats to spotted tree frogs in their natural habitat is human activity which has had a devastating effect in their populations. Human activities such as agriculture, and aquaculture has raised a situation where the habitat of spotted tree frogs is changed in sch a way that it is no longer sustainable for these creatures. Furthermore, there have developed disturbances to the habitat of the spotted tree frog as a result of logging activities which has brought about modification and degradation of the habitat through the harvesting of timber (Bury & Corn, 1988). Energy production within or close to the spotted tree frog natural habitat has led to a situation where they are not able to survive and reproduce efficiently because of the massive degradation to their environment. Human intrusions through the vandalism of the habitat of these frogs for no good reason has also promoted the hastening of the threat of extinction of these species; meaning that it has become essential for more action to be done to make sure that there are less intrusions and more serious sensitization concerning the importance of the conservation of the tree spotted frog in its natural habitat. The lack of an effective framework for the development of a policy of protecting the tree spotted frog is one of the reasons why this species has ended up being endangered because there has been little or no constructive controls to human activities in their environment. It has therefore become important for strong initiatives to sensitize individuals who live within the habitat of these frogs to make sure that their habitat is not only preserved, but also that the species is also protected from human activity.

Climate change has had a negative effect on the population of spotted tree frogs mainly because it has led to the destruction of their natural habitat. This destruction has come about as a result of the massive warming of the environment which has led to a situation where the ponds where these species lives have dried up (Bennett et al, 1991). Severe weather such as extreme heat has made a lot of the natural habitat of this species unsustainable for them. Because spotted tree frogs do not like moving a lot and prefer spending most of their time close to or within their ponds, this species has not been able to overcome the effects of global warming. The failure to overcome climate change through moving to safer ponds has led to a situation where spotted tree frogs are increasingly fighting a losing battle to survive in the wild and in their natural habitat. Reduced rainfall has also become a serious hazard for this species because it has led to the reduction of the area within which they can be able to live and reproduce at normal rates. The loss of areas for reproduction because of the loss of lack of rainfall has led to the devastation of the population of spotted tree frogs; making this population end up not being able to sustain itself efficiently in the wild.

Predation by other species, either native or alien, has also had a negative effect on the population of spotted tree frogs. This is because many of these species, especially those alien ones, often end up preying excessively on the spotted tree frog and this has created a situation where it has become difficult for them to sustain themselves in the wild. Moreover, because spotted tree frogs do not move too far away from their ponds, they end up being unable to fend off predators while at the same time being easy prey to the latter. The lack of predators to reduce the number of alien species that prey on spotted tree frogs means that the numbers of these alien species is continuously on the rise (Gillespie & Hollis, 1996). Since spotted tree frogs are easy prey, the result is that the species has rapid reduction in population, thus being endangered in the wild. The larvae of spotted tree frogs tend to be victims of predation by trout; a situation which has led to significant reductions in the population of this species (Hero, 1995). Other species also have a negative impact on spotted tree frogs especially in circumstances where they have the same diet. An increase in the population of rival species in a small habitat means that there is high competition for the meager resources available. Rats are also a growing problem because their destructive nature means that they often degrade the habitat of the spotted tree frog through grazing and predation. The presence of invasive species also means that there is a likelihood of the spread of pathogens which eventually develop into diseases that have a negative effect on the spotted tree frog.

There are situations where spotted tree frogs have had to endure massive population declines as a result of disease. This is especially the case in circumstances where such diseases as the chytrid fungus, whose origins are in the United States, have had a devastating effect on population growth (Gillespie, 1992). Furthermore, viral infections have also presented a problem which needs to be dealt with to ensure that the species is conserved. As a result of disease, there are some areas where the spotted tree frog has become extinct in its natural habitat with remaining populations not being within regions that can be protected. The introduction of new species starting in the nineteenth century and going on into the twentieth has resulted in the bringing in of alien diseases that has had a negative effect on spotted tree frogs. This is because it has led to the destruction of the species in some areas since they lack resistance to the new diseases. Moreover, the lack of monitoring of this species in the wild has prevented alien diseases from being recognized early and treated and this has proven to be a failure in efforts to preserve the species. Diseases brought in an transmitted by alien species can therefore be considered to be an important threat to the survival of spotted tree frogs which has resulted in its near extinction.

Environmental Degradation and Capitalist Growth and Consumption

Environmental degradation has become one of the most fundamental issues to dominate the political, economic, and social landscapes in the twenty first century. This is mainly because of the realization that it is increasingly leading to global warming that might have an adverse effect on not only the lives of human beings, but also the sustainability of the planet. Among the issues that have been considered to be the causes of environmental degradation are capitalist growth and consumption. Capitalist growth and consumption is blamed for the rapid development of industries which, while satisfying the massive demand for diverse products, has also contributed significantly to the greenhouse gas emissions which are currently plaguing the planet through global warming. The mechanisms of capitalism have led to a situation where there has been an increase in environmental degradation to such an extent that it has become a threat to the entire planet.

Capitalist growth and consumption as a result of globalization have led to an increase in environmental degradation all over the planet. This is especially the case where, as a result of the ever-increasing demand for consumer goods, the capitalist economic model has encouraged the rapid exploitation of available natural resources to satisfy the demand. However, there has been a failure in the by capitalist political economy to recognize that the exploitation of natural resources has an adverse effect on the environment within which it is taking place. In the Ecuadorian Amazon, the decades-long extraction of oil has led to a serious degradation of the environment to such an extent that species that were once prominent in the area are slowly but surely dying out. The large amounts of toxic chemicals released into the local environment as a result of unsafe ways of extracting oil has led to a situation where it has become highly unsustainable for both people and the various species that live within it (Center for Economic and Social Rights 1994, 82). However, despite the negative effects of oil extraction, there have been plans to increase oil production to such an extent that the possible ramifications on the environment have been almost completely ignored. The demand for oil in the global economy as well as the need for local governments to ensure that they are able to attain the money needed to balance their budgets means that it is very hard to change the minds of policymakers when it comes to reversing the effects of environmental degradation, especially among developing countries.

In addition, the capitalist system has led to the development of large corporations which, as a result of their activities, have essentially become a part of the economic and environmental problem. This is especially the case where these corporations operate in conflict zones despite the massive damage that their activities bring about (Raleigh 2007, 674). Corporations, as a result of the outrage that has come about because of their involvement in the degradation of the environment, have often sought to ensure that they remain relevant in the public eye through coming up with or adopting such philosophies as corporate social responsibility. However, social responsibility is normally considered to be a mask behind which corporations continue with their activities as usual while claiming to be helping those who are negatively affected by their activities. However, the reality is that there is increasing evidence showing corporations still making a lot of money at the expense of local populations and the environment. The propagation of social responsibility has also allowed corporations, especially in the oil and gas sector, to continue with their operation in conflict areas such as in South Sudan with the claim that their presence is good for the local population (Idahosa 2002, 228). This is normally not the case because it is as a result of their activities that both sides of the conflict end up having the necessary funding to ensure that the wars that they are conducting end up seemingly endless. As a result, local populations suffer and the environment becomes increasingly degraded through the use of diverse weapons, while the corporations, which have the money and power, continue reaping the profits.

Moreover, the capitalist economy has led to a situation where the emissions of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere have led to global warming on an unprecedented scale. Global warming has become a serious threat, especially among island nations which are witnessing a rise in sea levels; a threat to their very existence. Islands such as Tuvalu, with small landmasses and being wholly dependent on importation of consumer goods, are at a high risk of not only falling victim to global warming, but might also have to endure serious losses of life as a result of their isolation (Connell 2004, 260). Moreover, human response to disaster in these areas is likely to be slower because the small size of these islands has the effect of not being able to sustain ever increasing human populations. The greenhouse effect has also had a negative effect on agricultural production within these islands because the rising sea levels have led to the salination of a significant amount of valuable fresh water sources (Connell 2004, 262). It has therefore become essential for steps to be taken to ensure that there is greater awareness concerning the effects of capitalist growth on the rest of the world through an accurate study of effect so that it can be possible to reduce the rate of global warming. Such awareness is likely to lead to the creation of greater efficiency in helping island nations achieve environmental sustainability while at the same time be able to promote the retention of local ecosystems.

Capitalist growth and consumption as well as its role in environmental degradation have become a human rights issue. This issue has come about because the rapid industrialization of developed countries has led to a situation where the massive amounts of greenhouse gases emitted into the atmosphere has brought about global warming. Global warming has become a serious problem, especially for the poor, who make up the majority of people in the world, who cannot afford to protect themselves against the rapid changes taking place in their environment (Docherty and Giannini 2009, 350). The promotion of development goals in most developing countries such as India and China in order to achieve developed status has ensured that there is an almost total disregard for the need to protect the environment from degradation. Actions aimed at reducing environmental degradation present a dilemma for policymakers in developing countries because most of them might be considered to infringe on human rights. This is the case where policies implemented might lead to a reduction in the number of commodities that are available for poorer people who rely on cheap manufactured products in order to make ends meet.

In conclusion, the discussion has made an analysis of why the mechanisms of capitalism have led to a situation where there has been an increase in environmental degradation to such an extent that it has become a threat to the entire planet. There has been recognition that capitalist growth and consumption as a result of globalization have led to an increase in environmental degradation all over the planet. In addition, the capitalist system has led to the development of large corporations which, as a result of their activities, have essentially become a part of the economic and environmental problem. Moreover, the capitalist economy has led to a situation where the emissions of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere have led to global warming on an unprecedented scale. Finally, an argument stating that capitalist growth and consumption as well as its role in environmental degradation have become a human rights issue has been presented, showing that there has to be a balance between environmental protection and human rights.