Altruistic behaviour is
conducted by an organism as in such a way that allows it to protect the
interests of another organism other than itself. The importance of this process
cannot be underestimated because it involves organisms essentially display
behaviours that would otherwise not be considered natural (Schott,
Neumann, Baertschi, & Ritz, 2019). The costs and benefits of this
process can be measured through a consideration of the reproductive fitness or
number of offspring that organisms end up producing. However, it is noteworthy
that altruism is a process that takes place when an organism undertakes an
action aimed at helping another other than itself, and this ensures that there
is the promotion of a scenario where organism, in this case animals, end up
being shown to have conscious thought, just like humans. This paper seeks to
consider the way that altruistic behaviours are displayed among a diversity of organisms
including primates, birds, bees, and ants, and the differences between them.
In order to ensure that
there is the promotion of a scenario where there is an enhancement of survival,
animals have come to adopt altruistic behaviour. This is especially the case
when it comes to the way that for scientists that promote natural selection, it
is considered unnatural behaviour (De Waal, 2008). Altruistic behaviour is one that
shows considerable problems with natural selection, as seen through the
scenario where natural selection involves a process of survival of the fittest
yet this perspective is challenged through the way that animals behave when it
comes to altruism (Kay, Lehmann,
& Keller, 2019). Rather than promoting a scenario
where there is the advancement of their own interests, some animal species have
shown characteristics aimed at making sure that there is the promotion of
interests of other individuals apart from themselves. However, despite the
above argument, it is essential to consider that natural selection could also
play a part, as seen through the way that only those animals that display
altruistic behaviour end up enhancing their survival while those that do not
are presented with the dilemma of not being able to do so.
Numerous benefits for
those animals or organisms display altruistic behaviour are pertinent. Among
this is that it enhances kinship bonds because animals will share with one
another the little that they have, ensuring that there is an increase in the
chance of all of them surviving. Furthermore, the entire group of animals can
be greatly benefitted through the promotion of a scenario where the various
members are able to advance themselves through caring for one another with a
focus solely on the benefits of the group rather than the self (Crockett &
Lockwood, 2018; Rusch, Böhm, & Herrmann, 2016). This behaviour can also be considered
mutualistic because it ensures that the animals involved are able to support
one another in times of scarcity, as seen through the way that such creatures
as the vampire bats are able to regurgitate blood that they have consumed so
that their less fortunate companions can have something to eat. The individual
can also be benefitted because it can rely on social bonds based on altruistic
relationships to ensure that its survives.
However, while there may
be some benefits to altruism, there is also the potential of altruism being
detrimental. This is seen through the way that it can end up having a negative
effect on the survival and reproduction of the animal involved. Some animals,
especially those that take in the offspring of their companions that have been
killed, end up having to share the meagre food they have with their offspring,
resulting in a scenario where they risk the survival of their own offspring.
There is also the risk of death and injury because these individuals place
themselves at considerable risk for the sake of others. Therefore, altruism is
an action that results in there not being any direct benefit for the organism
itself and instead, the main beneficiary is the organism that is being provided
with assistance.
Group altruism takes
place between a diversity of creatures, especially when it comes to smaller
creatures. Honeypot ants display considerable altruism because of the way that
they have evolved in order to bring about the enhancement of their own
interests (Downing,
Cornwallis, & Griffin, 2016). These creatures will often
sacrifice themselves for the sake of their colony, showing a consideration for
others over themselves. Some birds also display group altruism because they are
able to make sure that they help their kin, especially those that have been
survived attacks or are suffering from some form of disadvantage. This ensures
that they are able to survive even in the most difficult of scenarios. Bees are
also prominent in this case because they are able to ensure that they undertake
a diversity of tasks, based on the division of labour within their hives. This
ensures that they are able to survive in various circumstances, including some
of the most dangerous, as seen through threats to their colonies.
Primates have also been
found to display considerable altruistic behaviours, which can be considered to
be closely related to that of humans. The altruistic behaviours of primates can
be considered to be almost human, as seen through the way that they will often
seek to alert one another whenever there are enemies, or when bonobos help to
feed the disabled or sick among them (Post,
Underwood, Schloss, & Hurlbut, 2002). They undertake these actions
without seeking any benefit for themselves and instead will make sure that they
benefit others among themselves. With a gesture, for example, chimpanzees will
ask for help from others, which shows the highly social nature that these
primates have ("Altruism
in Chimpanzees," 2016). It is also important to consider
that group altruism, while important for the group, is not advantageous for the
individuals animal’s fitness because it involves a scenario where there is the
advancement of the interests others over one self’s.
Altruism is also seen in
humans, as seen through the way that it is considered human to help one
another. Humans will often seek to makes sure that they advance the interests
of one another, especially in scenarios where they feel that they are at an
advantage over others (Trivers, 1971). In this way, there is the
promotion of altruism as part of human values to such an extent that it is an
extremely common phenomenon among humans. In animals, on the other hand, it is
not common because most of the scientific studies show that animal do not have
the same social values that could be compared with humans. Instead, animals
seem to undertake altruistic actions as part of their instincts rather than
based on conscious thought. The cognitive awareness of humans is far more
advanced than that of animals and this may be the main reason behind the former
being able to partake in altruism than would otherwise be the case. The major advantage
of altruism in humans is that it ensure that there is the promotion of mutual
interests in society to such an extent that it allows for cohesion. However,
there are instances where individuals will act altruistically against their own
interests, with the result being that they are unable to cope with certain circumstances,
ending up suffering.
Altruism has both long-
and short-term consequences to the fitness of the organism involved. It allows
for the attainment of cohesion, as seen in the way that humans will seek to
make sure that they advance each other’s interests as a way of promoting an
environment where they can rely on one another (Platt,
Seyfarth, & Cheney, 2016). One of the most important aspects
of altruism is that it allows for the short term support between members of the
same species or kin, which results in the enhancement of their ability to
survive. The long term benefit is that there is the enhancement of mutual
support between organisms in such a way that they are able to develop useful
characteristics that are inherited by their offspring. It is therefore
important to study altruism in animals because it allows for the promotion of
the best interests of the group as a whole.
History
The behaviour of animals
has been a subject of fascination by humans for centuries and has involved a
process where there has been the study of animals. One of the earliest works
that considered animal cognition in the modern world is that of Charles Darwin,
who promoted the idea of evolution and mental continuity; suggesting that it is
a process that involves a continuous development of the mental capacity of
animals ("Important
Scientists in the Early Development of Comparative Cognition,"). Another to make a study of animal
cognition was George Romanes, who made a study of the comparative psychology of
intelligence in a systematic manner. Edward Thorndike undertook the study of
animal learning and intelligence while B.F. Skinner made a consideration of
operant conditioning and behaviourism in animals. Finally, Wolfgang Kohler
undertook the study of learning and intelligence in animals.
In order to ensure that
there is the effective study of altruism in animals, it is essential to have an
effective definition of animal behaviour. Animal behaviour is the way that
animals will interact with their environment. Ethologists undertake the study
of animals in their natural environment in order to better understand their behaviour
and why they behave as they do. Moreover, studies in animals can also be
conducted in labs, especially when it comes to simulations concerning how they
would behave under a diversity of conditions. Comparative psychologists also
conduct studies of animal behaviour, but focus more on making sure that there
is an understanding of this behaviour based on mental processes of the animals
involved.
In their natural
habitat, primates live in an altruistic environment. This is pertinent because
these animals are highly social and because of this, they are able to conduct
altruism as a means of enhancing social cohesion. Primates such as chimpanzees
and gorillas will often groom one another as a means of not only preventing the
spread of unwanted insects among their group, but also as a form of social
bonding. Moreover, the mental processes they use show that they have goals,
intentions, knowledge and perception ("Altruism
in Chimpanzees," 2016). There is a slight difference when
one considers honeypot ants because for them, the individual is not important,
and in the colony, it is the queen that is the most important member since she
ensures its survival through reproduction. While this may be the case, it is
important to note that all the ants are specialised in their tasks, which are
critical for the survival of the colony and are often willing to sacrifice
themselves for the greater good (Ichimura,
Uemoto, Hara, & Mackin, 2014).
The study of altruism in
animals is a process that began to be taken seriously in the middle of the 20th
century. Among the most important developments in this field was the theory of
reciprocal altruism that was developed by Trivers in 1971 (Trivers, 1971). This theory proposes that animals
will undertake altruistic actions because they expect the same in return from
their companions. This is important because it shows a similarity to human
behaviour. One of the aspects that need to be considered is that of grooming
among chimpanzees; creatures that take turns grooming each other. It is likely
that they evolved this characteristic as a means of ensuring that they not only
enhanced social bonds, but also benefitted themselves from the process.
Hormones and the Brain
Hormones dictate the
altruistic behaviour of animals. This is seen in the way that primates behave in
the display of either maternal of paternal instincts. Maternal instincts come
into play when the hormones associated with giving birth and after birth are
released, affecting the brain (Dulac,
O’Connell, & Wu, 2014). The result is that there is a
change in behaviour in the female at this time to such an extent that they are
more likely than not to engage in altruistic behaviours. The significance of
this behaviour can be seen in the way that animals such as gorilla females will
undertake to provide the best care possible for their offspring; a scenario
that would not be possible without the hormonal changes taking place within them.
Paternal instincts also
develop in male primates, which induces them to display care towards their
offspring. The significance of this can be seen in the way that they will show
considerable altruism towards their offspring, as seen through the way that a
male silverback gorilla will take care of its young (Dulac et al.,
2014). However, this changes in a
scenario where they encounter young that are not their own offspring. Thus,
males are less likely to engage in altruism towards offspring that are not
their own but this changes as soon as their own are born; resulting in their
showing considerable care towards their offspring. Therefore, the hormonal
changes that take place in the brains of males results in either altruism or
hostility toward young in the group.
The structure of the
primate brain plays a significant role in the development of altruism. This is
especially the case when it comes to the discovery of neurons that are related
to bonding, decision making and competition (Platt et al.,
2016). These are pertinent because they enhance
the ability of primates to care to such an extent that they are more likely to
act altruistically. The emotions are perceived through the way that the
primates respond to each other based on memories of their previous encounters. Thus,
when it comes to encounters that were previously friendly, the individual
involved is more likely to respond in a friendly manner and vice versa.
When considering
altruism in the animal kingdom, it is important to make an analysis of bees.
Bees display a considerable level of altruism to such an extent that they are
able to communicate with one another through the use of pheromones (Bortolotti
& Costa, 2014). The primer pheromone, which is
usually produced and dispersed by only a few individuals, such as the queen,
will end up regulating caste expression and regulate sexuality. Moreover, there
are instances where the other bees in the hive will produce releaser pheromones
as a means of communicating. It is therefore pertinent to consider that the
social organisation of the bee colonies is often dependent on the pheromones
that are produced by the queens and it allows for the efficient communication
and recognition. About 15 components end up stimulating one of more alarm
behaviours in bees, which is significant because it allows for the production
and elicitation of response.
The queen bee is highly
protective of the entire colony and because of this, they will seek to maintain
control as needed. One of the most important factors concerning queen bees is
that they will undertake the process of producing all the members of the hive
through reproduction. It is the queen, through the laying of specific eggs,
that it becomes possible to produce worker bees, drones, and future queens in
the hive (Downing,
Cornwallis, & Griffin, 2017). It is likely that altruism born
out of a sense of survival as well as instinct makes the worker bees to ensure
that they mobilise in order to protect their queen. They often do this at the
cost of their own life, which is significant because they sacrifice themselves
for the survival of the queen, who is the most important member of the hive.
Birds also display
considerable altruistic instincts which can be associated with survival. This
is seen through the way that most birds will have maternal instincts which
guide them in the process of ensuring the survival of their offspring, and in
some cases, the offspring of others that are related to them (Reznikova,
2011). Some birds display cooperative
breeding as seen through the way that they will work together towards raising
offspring. Thus, a female bird will take on the responsibility of taking care
of the offspring of its relatives. Under circumstances where they live
alongside other closely related birds, as exemplified by such birds as scrub-jays,
highly altruistic behaviour end up being displayed as seen through the way that
they will seek to ensure that there is the advancement of mutual interests,
such as the protection of their young.
Birds will also display
considerable paternal instincts seen through the way that the males of
different bird species will often end up raising their offspring alongside the
females. Furthermore, males are more likely to engage in altruistic behaviours
when they feel that their mates are under threat from predators (Koenig, 1988). In fact, the male bird will work
alongside its mate to protect one another from predators. It is also necessary
to consider that male birds will often undertake to provide food for offspring,
and in some cases, their mates when the latter have to incubate their eggs.
Thus, birds have a high capacity for caring for one another, especially for their
mates and those that are related to them, such as their offspring. It shows the
way that bird species have evolved in such a way that altruism has become a
means of survival, and it is an instinctive feature of their nature.
Ants perform altruistic
behaviour that ensures that there is the promotion of each other’s wellbeing. Army
ants, for example, perform altruistic actions through the promotion of a
situation where they build bridges using their own bodies so that their
companions can be able to transfer food to their colony (Ichimura et
al., 2014). This ensures that there is the
promotion of a scenario where the wellbeing of the entire colony is placed
before that of the individual. Furthermore, there is the use of pheromones as a
means of communication, which ensures that other ants in the colony are
provided with signals that they can use to either find food or to detect
danger. Honeypot ants are truly altruistic and this characteristic has become a
part of their way of life; essentially instinctive. It has allowed for the
wellbeing of the entire hive through the suppression of individualism.
Studies
Studies that have been
conducted on primates have shown that they are altruistic. One of the most
significant of these is that of grooming among primates such as chimpanzees.
These animals have been shown to have a reciprocal altruistic relationship
based on grooming ("Altruism
in Chimpanzees," 2016). Another study that was conducted
is that of sharing, which showed that with a gesture, a chimpanzee could ask
its companion to share food with it. Observational studies on bees also showed
the manner through which been comply with or without a queen (Downing et al.,
2017). It showed the importance of the
queen within the colony and that without one, there was a risk of collapse; a
sign of the altruism and kinship prevalent in bee hives. Moreover, a study of
flight formation in birds showed the manner through which altruism plays a role
in encouraging the birds to work together towards the fulfilment of their
mutual interests (Andersson &
Wallander, 2004). It also showed the way that birds
are more amenable to taking care of kin offspring because of the ties between
them while at the same time displaying a level of hostility towards those that
were not kin.
A study of ants through
a food searching study showed the manner through which ants live in a highly
stratified society where each one of them fulfilled a certain purpose. Each of
the ants in the colony was willing to undertake any action possible aimed at
promoting the general welfare of all. The survival of the colony was paramount
meaning that it was critical for all, especially workers, to ensure that they
not only found food, but also alerted others to the food source so that they
could feed the rest of the colony. Honeypot ants were found to be willing to
sacrifice their own lives for the greater good (Ichimura et
al., 2014); a sign of the way that the
relationships between the members of the colonies overrode all individual
considerations.
Conclusions
There have been major
changes in the study of altruism in animals. One of the most significant of
these is that there has been rapid advancement in the study and recognition of
animal cognition and their capability for altruism. Moreover, four major
categories of animal behaviour have been considered including general
behaviour, cognitive behaviour, types of bonds, and brain structures. Also,
while there may be differences in altruistic behaviours, it is dependent on the
way that the animals themselves have evolved and the interest they might have
towards others, whether hostile or kinship. The results further support the
idea that altruism is a trait that is displayed by a diversity of creatures and
because of this, they are able to not only form societies, but also enhance
their chances of survival. Additionally, the study has shown the questions that
can be considered when conducting future studies. Among these is whether all
animals display altruistic behaviours, what can be learned based on the brain
structures of animals concerning their capacity for emotions, and whether
altruistic behaviours outweigh their disadvantages. Also, there should be a
consideration of the reasons behind their displaying altruistic behaviours.
This study was conducted
as a means of allowing the researchers to learn more about the behaviours of
animals and the relation of altruism to brain structures and neural
connections. Furthermore, there was an attempt to ensure that there was an
improvement of understanding of animals. Finally, there was an attempt to seek
a connection between the altruistic nature of humans with that of animals in
order to determine whether their processes are similar.
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